美國雷管國務卿杜勒斯報複和邊緣政策戰略

約翰·福斯特·杜勒斯（1888-1959）

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles

出生於華盛頓特區，美國政治家、律師、外交官。 1953年至1959年擔任德懷特·D·艾森豪威爾總統領導下的美國國務卿。他是冷戰初期的重要人物，主張在全世界範圍內采取激進的反共產主義立場。
1953 年 1 月，德懷特·艾森豪威爾接替杜魯門出任總統，杜勒斯被任命並確認為其國務卿。他擔任國務卿期間與世界各地的共產主義政府，特別是蘇聯發生了衝突。杜勒斯強烈反對共產主義，稱其為“無神的恐怖主義”。[28]杜勒斯的首選戰略是通過軍事建設和結成聯盟來遏製（被稱為“太平洋狂熱”）。

杜勒斯是大規模報複和邊緣政策戰略的先驅。在為《生活》雜誌撰寫的一篇文章中，杜勒斯定義了他的邊緣政策：“在不卷入戰爭的情況下到達邊緣的能力是必要的藝術。”[29]

杜勒斯的強硬路線疏遠了許多不結盟國家的領導人，他在 1955 年 6 月 9 日的一次演講中指出，“中立已經變得越來越過時，除非在非常特殊的情況下，否則它是一種不道德和短視的觀念。”[30] 1956年6月在愛荷華州的一次演講中，杜勒斯宣稱不結盟是“不道德的”，進一步嚴厲批評了不結盟運動。 [31]整個 20 世紀 50 年代，杜勒斯經常與不結盟政治家發生衝突，他認為這些人過於同情共產主義，其中包括印度的 V.K. Krishna Menon。

伊朗
1953 年 3 月，他的第一個重大政策轉向對共產主義采取更加激進的立場，當時杜勒斯支持艾森豪威爾的決定，指示當時由他的兄弟艾倫·杜勒斯領導的中央情報局 (CIA) 起草推翻總理穆罕默德的計劃伊朗摩薩台。[32]這直接導致了支持穆罕默德·禮薩·巴列維的阿賈克斯行動政變，後者重新獲得了伊朗國王的地位。

越南

在第一次印度支那戰爭期間，杜勒斯表示，他預計法國會戰勝共產主義越盟軍隊，並表示，“我不認為共產主義會在印度支那取得勝利”。 [33]杜勒斯致力於減少法國在越南的影響力，並要求美國嚐試與法國合作，幫助加強吳廷琰的軍隊。隨著時間的推移，杜勒斯得出結論，他必須“讓法國擺脫越南。”[34]

1954 年，在奠邊府戰役最激烈的時候，杜勒斯幫助策劃和推動了“禿鷹行動”，即提議使用 B-29 轟炸機對越共圍困陣地進行空中攻擊，以解救陷入困境的法國軍隊。艾森豪威爾總統讓美國的參與依賴於英國的支持，但外交大臣安東尼·伊登爵士反對，因此禿鷹計劃在杜勒斯的反對下被取消。[35][36]隨著奠邊府落入共產黨手中，杜勒斯與艾登鬧翻了。

在1954年涉及法屬印度支那分裂的日內瓦會議上，他禁止與中國代表團進行任何接觸，並拒絕與中國首席談判代表周恩來握手。杜勒斯還反對會議分割越南國家並舉行統一政府選舉的計劃，堅持認為反共的越南國家仍應是越南的合法政府。他隨後離開，以避免直接參與談判；杜勒斯的退出導致日內瓦會議未能解決越南衝突。[37][38]

亞洲及太平洋地區

作為國務卿，杜勒斯在朝鮮戰爭期間推行了中立台海的“遏製”政策。 [39]後來，杜勒斯在日內瓦反對中國和蘇聯關於朝鮮半島外交統一的任何建議，從而使朝鮮衝突得不到解決。 [40]

1954年，杜勒斯設計了東南亞條約組織（SEATO），規定采取集體行動反對侵略。該條約由澳大利亞、英國、法國、新西蘭、巴基斯坦、菲律賓、泰國和美國代表簽署。

1958年，杜勒斯授權空軍部長公開表示，美國準備在金門和馬祖群島與中國的衝突中使用核武器。 [41]

在多年抵製修訂後，從 1957 年到 1959 年，杜勒斯監督了《美日安保條約》修訂版的重新談判，該條約最終在他去世後的 1960 年獲得批準。 [42]

危地馬拉

1956 年杜勒斯與美國總統艾森豪威爾
同年，杜勒斯參與煽動

1953 年和 1954 年政變策劃期間的美國事務。[44]

埃及
1956年11月，杜勒斯強烈反對英法入侵蘇伊士運河地區，以回應埃及對運河的國有化。最關鍵的日子裏，杜勒斯手術後住院，沒有參與美國政府的決策。到1958年，他已成為埃及總統賈邁勒·阿卜杜勒·納賽爾的直言不諱的反對者，並阻止納賽爾政府接受美國的武器。這項政策使蘇聯在埃及獲得了影響力。[45]

John Foster Dulles （1888–1959) 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles

Born in Washington, D.C., an American politician, lawyer, and diplomat.  Served as United States Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, who advocated an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world.

When Dwight Eisenhower succeeded Truman as president in January 1953, Dulles was appointed and confirmed as his Secretary of State. His tenure as Secretary was marked by conflict with communist governments worldwide, especially the Soviet Union; Dulles strongly opposed communism, calling it "Godless terrorism."[28] Dulles's preferred strategy was containment through military build-up and the formation of alliances (dubbed "pactomania").

Dulles was a pioneer of the strategies of massive retaliation and brinkmanship. In an article written for Life magazine, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art."[29]

Dulles's hard line alienated many leaders of non-aligned countries when on June 9, 1955, he argued in a speech that "neutrality has increasingly become obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and shortsighted conception."[30] In a June 1956 speech in Iowa, Dulles declared non-alignment to be "immoral", further castigating the Non-Aligned Movement.[31] Throughout the 1950s, Dulles was in frequent conflict with non-aligned statesmen who he deemed were too sympathetic to communism, including India's V. K. Krishna Menon.

Iran
One of his first major policy shifts towards a more aggressive position against communism occurred in March 1953, when Dulles supported Eisenhower's decision to direct the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), then headed by his brother Allen Dulles, to draft plans to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh of Iran.[32] That led directly to the coup d'état via Operation Ajax in support of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who regained his position as the Shah of Iran.

Vietnam
During the First Indochina War, Dulles stated that he expected a French victory against the communist Viet Minh forces, stating, "I do not expect that there is going to be a communist victory in Indochina".[33] Dulles worked to reduce French influence in Vietnam and asked the United States to attempt to co-operate with the French in the aid of strengthening Diem's army. Over time, Dulles concluded that he had to "ease France out of Vietnam."[34]

In 1954, at the height of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, Dulles helped plan and promote Operation Vulture, a proposed B-29 aerial assault on the communist Viet Minh siege positions to relieve the beleaguered French Army. President Eisenhower made American participation reliant on British support, but Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden was opposed to it and so Vulture was canceled over Dulles's objections.[35][36] With Dien Bien Phu's fall to the communists, Dulles fell out with Eden.

At the 1954 Geneva Conference, which concerned the breakup of French Indochina, he forbade any contact with the Chinese delegation and refused to shake hands with Zhou Enlai, the lead Chinese negotiator. Dulles also opposed the conference's plan to partition the country of Vietnam and hold elections for a unified government, insisting that the anti-communist State of Vietnam should remain the legitimate Vietnamese government. He subsequently left to avoid direct association with the negotiations; Dulles's exit contributed to the Geneva Conference's failure to resolve the conflict in Vietnam.[37][38]

Asia and the Pacific
As Secretary of State, Dulles carried out the "containment" policy of neutralizing the Taiwan Strait during the Korean War.[39] Later, at Geneva, Dulles objected to any proposals by China and the Soviet Union for a diplomatic reunification of Korea, thus leaving the Korean conflict unresolved.[40]

In 1954, Dulles designed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), providing for collective action against aggression. The treaty was signed by representatives of Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States.

In 1958, Dulles authorized the Secretary of the Air Force to state publicly that the United States was prepared to use nuclear weapons in a conflict with China over the islands of Quemoy and Matsu.[41]

After having resisted revision for many years, from 1957 to 1959, Dulles oversaw the renegotiation of a revised version of the U.S.–Japan Security Treaty, which was eventually ratified in 1960, after his death.[42]

Guatemala

Dulles with U.S. President Eisenhower in 1956
The same year, Dulles participated in the instigation of a

Egypt
In November 1956, Dulles strongly opposed the Anglo-French invasion of the Suez Canal zone in response to Egypt's nationalization of the canal. During the most crucial days, Dulles was hospitalized after surgery and did not participate in the U.S. administration's decision making. By 1958, he had become an outspoken opponent of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and prevented Nasser's government from receiving arms from the United States. That policy allowed the Soviet Union to gain influence in Egypt.[45]