文獻索引： 第十章 零和博弈

·    在東灣佛利蒙有兩家華裔的公司在2015年三月曾被竊 – 參見舊金山灣區華語電視KTSF新聞《Fremont市華裔經營電腦公司遭爆竊 損失數十萬元》(http://www.ktsf.com/a-commercial-burglary-in-fremont-over-the-weekend-resulted-in-the/)。
·    罪犯輪廓 (Offender Profiling or Criminal Profiling) – 參見美國心理學協會 (APA, American Psychological Association) 文章 Lea Winerman, “Criminal profiling: the reality behind the myth” July/August 2004, Vol 35, No. 7, p. 66  (http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug04/criminal.aspx)。
·    種族輪廓 (Racial Profiling) – 參見Wiki 詞條 “Racial profiling”( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_profiling) 以及Wiki – Conservapedia 詞條 “Racial profiling controversy”( http://www.conservapedia.com/Racial_profiling_controversy)。Conservapedia 是 Wikipedia 分項目之一，試圖犯映美國保守派的觀點。
·    世事如棋 – 浙江衢州城東南有爛柯山又名石室山。南北朝時梁朝任昉《述異記》載“信安郡石室山，晉時王質伐木，至見童子數人，棋而歌，質因聽之。童子以一物與質，如棗核，質含之不覺饑。俄頃，童子謂曰：‘何不去？’，質起，視斧柯爛盡，既歸，無複時人。”《爛柯經》又名《棋經十三篇》，北宋皇仁宗時皇祐中翰林學士張擬所作 (http://club.ntu.edu.tw/~davidhsu/New-Davidhome/05-david-book/DAVIDBOOK/CHINESE/001david-new-book/CHESS.pdf)。
·    經濟學家保羅• 薩默爾森關於博弈論 -- Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson’s quote: “To be literate in the modern age, you need to have a general understanding of game theory.”
·    約翰·馮· 諾依曼 (John von Neumann) -- 計算機之父，博弈論的創始人。參見《大英百科全書》(Encyclopedia Britanica) “John von Neumann”(http://www.britannica.com/biography/John-von-Neumann)。關於諾依曼極大極小定理 (Maxmin Theorem)，參見 John  von Neumann, J: Zur Theorie der Gesellschaftsspiele Math. Annalen. 100, pp. 295-320, 1928。
·    美國數學家約翰·納什 – 參見紐約時報2015年5月24日文章 “John F. Nash Jr., Math Genius Defined by a ‘Beautiful Mind,’ Dies at 86”(http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/25/science/john-nash-a-beautiful-mind-subject-and-nobel-winner-dies-at-86.html?_r=0)。關於他的博士論文《非合作博弈》參見 John Nash “Non-cooperative games” Annals Math 54(2), pp. 286–295, 1951 (http://www.cs.upc.edu/~ia/nash51.pdf) 。
·    電影《美麗的心靈》及其主題曲 “All Love Can Be”—參見Wiki 詞條 “A beautiful mind (film)”(https://www.google.com/search?num=100&lr=&as_qdr=all&q=all+love+can+be+lyrics&oq=All+Love+Can+Be&gs_l=serp.1.3.35i39j0j0i7i30j0i20j0i7i30l3j0l3.52513.52513.0.55764.1.1.0.0.0.0.251.251.2-1.1.0.crnk_zc%2Cezcr%3D1.1..0...1.1.64.serp..0.1.251.xGh3zoLBKaI)。主題曲歌詞：
All Love Can Be
Song by Charlotte Church
I will watch you in the darkness
Show your love, will see you through
When the bad dreams wake you crying
I'll show you all love can do
All love can do
I will watch through the night
Hold you in my arms
Give you dreams where no one will be
I will watch through the dark
Till the morning comes
For the light will take you
Through the night to see our light
Showing us all love can be
I will guard you with my bright wings
Stay till your heart learns to see
All love can be
·    阿蘭·圖靈 (Alan Turing) -- 英國數學家和邏輯學家，計算機邏輯的奠基者，和馮• 諾依曼一樣被稱為計算機科學之父，並被稱為人工智能之父。參見《大英百科全書》(Encyclopedia Britanica) “Alan Turing”(http://www.britannica.com/biography/Alan-Turing)。
·    圖靈和蘋果公司的商標 – 參見英國廣播公司 (BBC) (http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120620-the-turing-test-of-time):  ……That apple by his deathbed has become the most famous in science since Isaac Newton’s windfall, with claims that Turing poisoned it so he could mimic the one in his favourite fairy-tale, Disney’s Snow White, and – repeatedly – that it inspired Apple’s famous once-bitten logo. Although writer/actor/presenter/technophile Stephen Fry says that when he asked Apple founder Steve Jobs if the story is true, Jobs replied: "God we wish it were. It's just a coincidence." 
·    想起蘇格拉底名言：“人啊，認識你自己吧“ – 參見Wiki 詞條 “Know thyself”(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Know_thyself)。
·    亞當·斯密的“人人為自己”— 那是18世紀英國經濟學家，古典經濟學理論體係的創立者亞當·斯密1776年在《國富論》中提出的命題。亞當·斯密在他的經典著作《國富論》(Adam Smith “The Wealth of Nations”) 第四部第二章第七段至九段 (Book IV, Chapter II, paragraphs 7 - 9)中提出了“看不見的手”的概念:  

第二，每個個人把資本用以支持國內產業，必然會努力指導那種產業，使其生產物盡可能有最大的價值。

勞動的結果是勞動對其對象或對施以勞動的原材料所增加的東西。勞動者利潤的大小，同這生產物價值的大小成比例。但是，把資本用來支持產業的人，既以牟取利潤為唯一目的，他自然總會努力使他用其資本所支持的產業的生產物能具有最大價值，換言之，能交換最大數量的貨幣或其他貨物。

但每個社會的年收入，總是與其產業的全部年產物的交換價值恰好相等，或者無寧說，和那種交換價值恰好是同一樣東西。所以，由於每個個人都努力把他的資本盡可能用來支持國內產業，都努力管理國內產業，使其生產物的價值能達到最高程度，他就必然竭力使社會的年收入盡量增大起來。確實，他通常既不打算促進公共的利益，也不知道他自己是在什麽程度上促進那種利益。由於寧願投資支持國內產業而不支持國外產業，他隻是盤算他自己的安全；由於他管理產業的方式目的在於使其生產物的價值能達到最大程度，他所盤算的也隻是他自己的利益。在這場合，象在其他許多場合一樣，他受著一隻看不見的手的指導，去盡力達到一個並非他本意想要達到的目的。也並不因為事非出於本意，就對社會有害。他追求自己的利益，往往使他能比在真正出於本意的情況下更有效地促進社會的利益。我從來沒有聽說過，那些假裝為公眾幸福而經營貿易的人做了多少好事。事實上，這種裝模作樣的神態在商人中間並不普遍，用不著多費唇舌去勸阻他們。

(Secondly, every individual who employs his capital in the support of domestic industry, necessarily endeavours so to direct that industry, that its produce may be of the greatest possible value.

The produce of industry is what it adds to the subject or materials upon which it is employed. In proportion as the value of this produce is great or small, so will likewise be the profits of the employer. But it is only for the sake of profit that any man employs a capital in the support of industry; and he will always, therefore, endeavour to employ it in the support of that industry of which the produce is likely to be of the greatest value, or to exchange for the greatest quantity either of money or of other goods.

But the annual revenue of every society is always precisely equal to the exchangeable value of the whole annual produce of its industry, or rather is precisely the same thing with that exchangeable value. As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can, both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce maybe of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain; and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.)

對 “看不見的手”概念的闡述可參見維基MBA智庫詞條《看不見的手》(http://wiki.mbalib.com/wiki/%E7%9C%8B%E4%B8%8D%E8%A7%81%E7%9A%84%E6%89%8B): 亞當·斯密達觀點是個人在經濟生活中隻考慮自己利益，受“看不見的手”驅使，通過分工和市場的作用，可以達到國家富裕的目的。“看不見的手”以後成了資本主義完全競爭模式的形象用語。這種模式的主要特征是私有製，人人為自己，都有獲得市場信息的自由，自由競爭，無需政府幹預經濟活動。亞當·斯密的後繼者們以均衡理論的形式完成了對於完全競爭市場機製的精確分析。在完全競爭條件下，生產是小規模的，一切企業由企業主經營，單獨的生產者對產品的市場價格不發生影響，消費者用貨幣作為“選票”，決定著產量和質量。生產者追求利潤最大化，消費者追求效用最大化。價格自由地反映供求的變化，其功能一是配置稀缺資源，二是分配商品和勞務。通過看不見的手，企業家獲得利潤，工人獲得由競爭的勞動力供給決定的工資，土地所有者獲得地租。供給自動地創造需求，儲蓄與投資保持平衡。通過自由競爭，整個經濟體係達到一般均衡，在處理國際經濟關係時，遵循自由放任原則。政府不對外貿進行管製。“看不見的手”反映了早期資本主義自由競爭時代的經濟現實。