四）肉桂與肉桂鳥的傳說
在古歐洲，肉桂比胡椒稀少，因而更加昂貴。阿拉伯人長期把持著肉桂生意，為了賺取暴利，他們對肉桂的產地三緘其口，還編造了一係列神奇的故事。古希臘作家和曆史學家希羅多德（Herodotus，約前480年─前425年）在他的著作《曆史》（The Histories）的第三卷有較為詳細的記載：
第107段： “阿拉伯是朝著正午方向的最遠的人類居住地，所有的土地上都生長著乳香、末藥、肉桂和麻思他其乳香膠。除了沒藥，其他香料都是阿拉伯人曆經千辛萬苦才得到的。
他們通過焚燒腓尼基人帶到希臘的蘇合香來取得乳香。他們燒了蘇合香，得到了乳香；因為這些含有香料的樹木被顏色各異的小翅蛇守護著，每棵樹上都有許多蛇；這些就是攻擊埃及的蛇。隻有蘇合香的煙霧可以把它們從樹上趕走”。
（Then again Arabia is the furthest of inhabited lands in the direction of the midday, and in it alone of all lands grow frankincense and myrrh and cassia and cinnamon and gum-mastich. All these except myrrh are got with difficulty by the Arabians.
They gather frankincense by burning that storax which Phoenicians carry to Hellas; they burn this and so get the frankincense; for the spice-bearing trees are guarded by small winged snakes of varied color, many around each tree; these are the snakes that attack Egypt. Nothing except the smoke of storax will drive them away from the trees. ）
（注：希臘語稱希臘為Hellas，英語稱希臘為Greece 。storax ，蘇合香，燃燒時會產生刺鼻的煙霧，因此用作消毒劑。）
第110段： “阿拉伯人通過上述方式獲得乳香，而通過下列方式獲得肉桂(Casia)：他們用牛皮和其他皮毛包裹全身和臉部，隻有眼睛暴露在外麵。肉桂生長在一個淺湖中；一種酷似蝙蝠的長著翅膀的生物圍繞著它們，發出類似蝙蝠的尖叫聲並頑強的抵抗；必須讓這些生物遠離視線，才能得到肉桂”。
（The Arabians get frankincense in the foregoing way, and casia in the following way: when they go after it they bind oxhides and other skins all over their bodies and faces except for the eyes. Casia grows in a shallow lake; around this and in it live winged creatures, very like bats, that squeak similarly and make a fierce resistance; these have to be kept away from the eyes in order to take the casia.）
第111段：“至於肉桂（cinnamon），他們以一種更加奇怪的方式收集它。他們說不出它的來源和產地，比較合理的傳說是肉桂生長在養育狄俄倪索斯（酒神）的國度。那裏有大鳥拿走幹燥的樹枝，然後把它們帶到懸崖峭壁上用泥土築的巢裏，人類爬不上去。我們從腓尼基人口中得知那是肉桂。阿拉伯人想了個辦法，把死牛、死驢和其他載重動物的屍體切成盡可能大的碎片，放在猛禽的巢附近，然後撤得遠遠的。傳說鳥兒飛下來，將動物碎片拿回它們的巢穴，但巢穴無法承受碎肉的重量，碎了並散落在山邊。而後阿拉伯人前去收集肉桂。據說肉桂就是這樣收集的，從阿拉伯運到了別的國家”。
（As for cinnamon, they gather it in an even stranger way. Where it comes from and what land produces it they cannot say, except that it is reported, reasonably enough, to grow in the places where Dionysus was reared. There are great birds, it is said, that take these dry sticks which we have learned from the Phoenicians to call cinnamon and carry them off to nests stuck with mud to precipitous cliffs, where man has no means of approach. The Arabian solution to this is to cut dead oxen and asses and other beasts of burden into the largest possible pieces, then to set these near the eyries and withdraw far off. The birds then fly down (it is said) and carry the pieces of the beasts up to their nests, while these, not being able to bear the weight, break and fall down the mountain side, and then the Arabians come and gather them up. Thus is cinnamon said to be gathered, and so to come from Arabia to other lands. ）
《曆史》一書記錄了希羅多德在旅行中的所見所聞以及第一波斯帝國的曆史，是西方文學史上第一部完整流傳下來的散文作品，希羅多德也因此被尊稱為“曆史之父”。從他的這幾段文字可以看出Cinnamon與Cassia似乎是兩個不同的肉桂品種，產地也不同。伴隨著這些傳說而生的大鳥，被古希臘哲學家和動物學奠基人亞裏士多德（Aristotle，公元前384－公元前322年）稱為“肉桂鳥”（cinnamalogus）。他在著作《動物誌》裏解釋說：“肉桂鳥是一種生活在阿拉伯的鳥類。它用人們珍視的肉桂果實築巢，鳥巢太高，樹枝太脆，想要肉桂的人們無法爬樹接近鳥巢，於是向鳥巢扔鉛球讓肉桂掉下來。從這種鳥巢中獲得的肉桂是最有價值的”。
（The cinnamalogus is a bird that lives in Arabia. It builds its nest using the fruit of the cinnamon tree, which men value greatly. The men who want to cinnamon cannot climb the tree to reach the nest, because the nest is too high and the tree branches too delicate, so they throw lead balls to knock down the cinnamon. Cinnamon obtained from the nest of this bird is the most valuable of all.）
（從其他網站上下載的肉桂鳥）
時光又過了幾百年，古羅馬作家和博物學家老普林尼（Pliny, the elder, 公元23年－79年）在他的《自然史》（The Natural History）裏駁斥了阿拉伯人的無稽之談。第十二卷的42章和43章分別介紹了Cainnamomum 和Cassia,如下：
第42章：肉桂/類肉桂 （CINNAMOMUM. XYLOCINNAMUM）
“奇妙的古物，希羅多德斯尤其提到肉桂（cinnamomum 和cassia）生長在養育自由之父（即酒神狄俄倪索斯）的地區，是從某種鳥類（極有可能為鳳凰）的巢中發現的。鳥巢建在難以攀爬的岩石和樹木上，或因鳥兒們帶回家的肉塊太重掉了下來，或是被裝有鉛的箭頭射下來的，肉桂隨之而落。也有人說，肉桂（cassia）生長在某些沼澤地裏，受到一種可怕的帶爪蝙蝠和一種翅蛇的保護。顯然，這些傳說都是為了提高商品的價格而編造的。另一個故事也隨之而生，大意是在正午的陽光下，整個半島散發出一種難以描述的由各種氣味混合而成的芬芳。風挾著這種香味吹到了遠海上的亞曆山大大帝的艦隊，第一次告知了阿拉伯半島的存在。然而，這些都是假的。肉桂（cinnamomum或cinnamum）生長在埃塞爾比亞人的國家，他們通過與穴居人通婚而合成一個國家。這些東西從鄰居那裏買來之後，運到了廣闊的海域上，放在木筏上，這些木筏既不靠舵操縱，也不靠槳或帆來推動。他們還沒有得到這些資源的協助，僅僅靠人力和勇氣來代替技術。除此以外，他們還選擇了冬季，大約在春分，東南風吹來，航程開始了。這些風引著他們從一個海灣去往另一個海灣，走了阿拉伯海角兩倍長的航程後，東北風將他們帶到蓋倫人的一個港口，這個港口叫歐西裏亞。因此他們優先駛向這個港口；據說差不多五年之後這些商人才能返航，許多人在航程中喪命。作為交換，他們帶回了玻璃製品和銅製品、布匹、帶扣、手鐲和項鏈。因此，這趟航行的成敗尤其取決於女性多變的品味和愛好。肉桂灌木叢最多隻有兩個肘節那麽高，最矮的不超過一個手掌的長度。它的寬度約為四根手指，開始抽芽和長吸盤前，它離地麵的高度不會超過六根手指。到那時它的外表會幹燥和枯萎，而當它是綠色時，則完全沒有氣味。葉子像野馬鬱蘭，在幹燥的地方長的最好，在雨天不是那麽多產。它也需要不斷修剪。盡管它生長在平地上，但在纏結的蕨類和荊棘叢中生長得最好，因此很難收集。隻有得到神的許可才可以收集肉桂，因此有人認為朱庇特太刻薄了，埃塞爾比亞人稱他們的神為“阿薩比納斯”。他們向神敬獻了四十四隻公牛、山羊和公羊的內髒，請求神的恩準。但神仍禁止他們在日出之前或日落之後勞作。祭司用長矛將樹枝分開，留出一部分獻給神。之後，經銷商將剩下的全部成塊儲存。還有另一個說法，肉桂在采集者和太陽之間進行分配，分成三個部分，然後抽簽兩次，屬於太陽的份額留在那裏，由其自燃。”
（肉桂鳥）
（CHAP. 42. —CINNAMOMUM.1 XYLOCINNAMUM
Fabulous antiquity, and Herodotus more particularly, have related that cinnamomum and cassia are found in the nests of certain birds, and principally that of the phœnix, in the districts where Father Liber was brought up; and that these substances either fall from the inaccessible rocks and trees in which the nests are built, in consequence of the weight of the pieces of flesh which the birds carry up, or else are brought down by the aid of arrows loaded with lead. It is said, also, that cassia grows around certain marshes, but is protected by a frightful kind of bat armed with claws, and by winged serpents as well. All these tales, however, have been evidently invented for the purpose of enhancing the prices of these commodities. Another story, too, bears them company, to the effect that under the rays of the noon-day sun, the entire peninsula exhales a certain indescribable perfume composed of its numerous odours; that the breezes, as they blow from it, are impregnated with these odours, and, indeed, were the first to announce the vicinity of Arabia to the fleets of Alexander the Great, while still far out at sea. All this, however, is false; for cinnamomum, or cinnamum, which is the same thing, grows in the country of the Æthiopians,who are united by intermarriages with the Troglodytæ. These last, after buying it of their neighbours, carry it over vast tracts of sea, upon rafts, which are neither steered by rudder, nor drawn or impelled by oars or sails. Nor yet are they aided by any of the resources of art, man alone, and his daring boldness, standing in place of all these; in addition to which, they choose the winter season, about the time of the equinox, for their voyage, for then a south easterly wind is blowing; these winds guide them in a straight course from gulf to gulf, and after they have doubled the promonotory of Arabia, the north east wind carries them to a port of the Gebanitæ, known by the name of Ocilia. Hence it is that they steer for this port in preference; and they say that it is almost five years before the merchants are able to effect their return, while many perish on the voyage. In return for their wares, they bring back articles of glass and copper, cloths, buckles, bracelets, and necklaces; hence it is that this traffic depends more particularly upon the capricious tastes and inclinations of the female sex. The cinnamon shrub is only two cubits in height, at the most, the lowest being no more than a palm in height. It is about four fingers in breadth, and hardly has it risen six fingers from the ground, before it begins to put forth shoots and suckers. It has then all the appearance of being dry and withered, and while it is green it has no odour at all. The leaf is like that of wild marjoram, and it thrives best in dry localities, being not so prolific in rainy weather; it requires, also, to be kept constantly clipped. Though it grows on level ground, it thrives best among tangled brakes and brambles, and hence it is extremely difficult to be gathered. It is never gathered unless with the permission of the god, by whom some suppose Jupiter to be meant; the Æthiopians, however, call him Assabinus.They offer the entrails of forty-four oxen, goats, and rams, when they implore his permission to do so, but after all, they are not allowed to work at it before sunrise or after sunset. A priest divides the branches with a spear, and sets aside one portion of them for the god; after which, the dealer stores away the rest in lumps. There is another account given, which states that a division is made between the gatherers and the sun, and that it is divided into three portions, after which lots are twice drawn, and the share which falls to the sun is left there, and forthwith ignites spontaneously.）
“樹枝上中最薄的那部分，長約一個手掌，最受重視，用來製作最好品質的肉桂。下麵那個部分，盡管不是很長，是次好的，依此類推。最接近根的那部分是品質最糟糕的，因為那部分的樹皮最少，最有價值的部分是這樣的：樹的上部是首選，那裏樹皮比例最大。至於木頭，絲毫不受重視，因為味道和野馬鬱蘭一樣的辛辣。肉桂(cinnamomum)的價格是每磅十德納爾。一些作家提到了兩種肉桂，白色和黑色的：從前流行白色的，現在正好相反，人們認為黑色的最好，甚至斑駁色的都強過白色的。然而，判斷肉桂品質好壞的最確定的檢驗標準是它不粗糙，並且揉在一起時不易碎成粉末。柔軟的肉桂尤其會被淘汰，說明外部樹皮非常容易脫落。”
（The thinnest parts in the sticks, for about a palm in length, are looked upon as producing the finest cinnamon; the part that comes next, though not quite so long, is the next best, and so on downwards. The worst of all is that which is nearest the roots, from the circumstance that in that part there is the least bark, the portion that is the most esteemed: hence it is that the upper part of the tree is preferred, there being the greatest proportion of bark there. As for the wood, it is held in no esteem at all, on account of the acrid taste which it has, like that of wild marjoram; it is known as xylocinnamum. The price of cinnamomum is ten denarii per pound. Some writers make mention of two kinds of cinnamon, the white and the black: the white was the one that was formerly preferred, but now, on the contrary, the black is held in the highest estimation, and the mottled, even, is preferred to the white. The most certain test, however, of the goodness of cinnamon is its not being rough, and the fact that the pieces when rubbed together do not readily crumble to powder. That which is soft is more particularly rejected, which is the case, also, when the outer bark too readily falls off. ）
“隻有蓋倫人的國王才有權規範肉桂銷售，他公開宣布開放肉桂市場。一磅肉桂的價格從前高達一千德納爾；據說後來心懷憎恨的野蠻人放火燒毀了森林，導致價格又漲了一半。這場大火究竟是由於當權者行為不公而引發的，還是純屬偶然，至今未有確切定論。我們發現一些作者提過，在這些地區盛行的南風有時太熱了，導致森林起火。 維斯巴西安.奧古斯都是第一個在朱庇特神廟以及和平女神廟宇奉獻肉桂的皇帝，肉桂被嵌入金浮雕裏。我本人曾經在帕拉蒂尼山的殿堂中見過奧古斯塔皇後獻給已故的奧古斯都皇帝的一根很重的肉桂樹根，放在一個金色的大淺盤裏；每年盤子裏的液滴用來蒸餾，凝結成硬粒。淺盤一直留在那裏，直到神廟被大火意外摧毀。”
（The right of regulating the sale of the cinnamon belongs solely to the king of the Gebanitæ, who opens the market for it by public proclamation. The price of it was formerly as much as a thousand denarii per pound; which was afterwards increased to half as much again, in consequence, it is said, of the forests having been set on fire by the barbarians, from motives of resentment; whether this took place through any injustice exercised by those in power, or only by accident, has not been hitherto exactly ascertained. Indeed, we find it stated by some authors, that the south winds that prevail in these parts are sometimes so hot as to set the forests on fire. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus was the first to dedicate in the temples of the Capitol and the goddess Peace chaplets of cinnamon inserted in embossed gold. I, myself, once saw in the temple of the Palatium, which his wife Augusta dedicated to her husband the late emperor Augustus, a root of cinnamon of great weight, placed in a patera of gold: from it drops used to distil every year, which congealed in hard grains. It remained there until the temple was accidentally destroyed by fire. ）
第43章：肉桂（Cassia）
“肉桂（Cassia ）也是一種灌木，生長在山區，離生長著cinnamon的平原不遠。但是它的樹枝比cinnamon粗很多。它的外表覆蓋著一層薄皮，而不是樹皮，與Cinnamon不同的是，當樹皮掉下來並碎成小塊時，被認為是最有價值的。灌木高三個肘節，顏色有三層：當第一根主幹從地麵長出，約一尺高的時候，是白色的。超過這個高度後的半尺是紅色的，更高的部分則變成黑色的。最後的部分是最有價值的，其次為第二部分，白色的部分是價值最低的。他們將樹枝的末端切成兩個手指的長度，特地宰了牛，將收割來的樹枝縫在新鮮的牛皮中：牛皮腐爛後長出的蛆會吃掉木質部分，露出味道苦澀的樹皮，不受蛆蟲攻擊。最新鮮的樹皮是有價值的，具有非常細膩的氣味，而且口感極其辛辣，甚至會灼傷舌頭，不會在嘴裏產生溫和的感覺。它是紫色的，雖然體積很大，重量卻相對較輕。外皮形成短管，絕不容易折斷：野蠻人給這種肉桂取名拉達。還有另一種被稱為香脂素，因其具有類似香脂的芬芳，但味道更苦，因此常用於醫藥中，就像黑色的肉桂（cassia）被製成軟膏一樣。沒有確定的事實說明價格會出現更大波動：最佳品質的肉桂（cassia）每磅售價為50德納爾，其他品質的價格為每磅5德納爾”。
（CHAP. 43.—CASSIA
Cassia is a shrub also, which grows not far from the plains where cinnamon is produced, but in the mountainous localities; the branches of it are, however, considerably thicker than those of cinnamon. It is covered with a thin skin rather than a bark, and, contrary to what is the case with cinnamon, it is looked upon as the most valuable when the bark falls off and crumbles into small pieces. The shrub is three cubits in height, and the colours which it assumes are threefold: when it first shoots from the ground, for the length of a foot, it is white; after it has attained that height, it is red for half a foot, and beyond that it is black. This last is the part that is held in the highest esteem, and next to it the portion that comes next, the white part being the least valued of all. They cut the ends of the branches to the length of two fingers, and then sew them in the fresh skins of cattle that have been killed expressly for the purpose; the object being that the skins may putrefy, and the maggots generated thereby may eat away the woody parts, and so excavate the bark; which is so intensely bitter, that it is quite safe from their attacks. That which is the freshest is the most highly esteemed; it has a very delicate smell, and is so extremely hot to the taste, that it may be said to burn the tongue, rather than gradually warm the mouth. It is of a purple colour, and though of considerable volume, weighs but very little in comparison; the outer coat forms into short tubes which are by no means easily broken: this choice kind of cassia, the barbarians call by the name of lada. There is another sort, again, which is called balsamodes,because it has a smell like that of balsam, but it is bitter; for which reason it is more employed for medicinal purposes, just as the black cassia is used for unguents. There is no substance known that is subject to greater variations in price: the best qualities sell at fifty denarii per pound, others, again, at five.）
“交易商在這些品種中添加了另一種叫做daphnoides （類似於月桂）的植物，並給它起起名“類肉桂”； 每磅售價為三百德納爾。它被摻入了蘇合香，看起來與肉桂樹皮很相似，還加入了很小的月桂樹細枝。肉桂（Cassia）也被種植在我們的國土範圍內，植在帝國的最邊緣地區，在萊茵河兩岸，栽在蜂巢附近的肉桂（cassia）非常繁茂。但是，它們沒有被灼熱的陽光烤過後的燒焦的顏色，因此也沒有和來自南方的物種相似的氣味”。
(To these varieties the dealers have added another, which they call daphnoides, and give it the surname of isocinnamon; the price at which it sells is three hundred denarii per pound. It is adulterated with storax, and, in consequence of the resemblance of the bark, with very small sprigs of laurel. Cassia is also planted in our part of the world, and, indeed, at the extreme verge of the Empire, on the banks of the river Rhenus, where it flourishes when planted in the vicinity of hives of bees. It has not, however, that scorched colour which is produced by the excessive heat of the sun; nor has it, for the same reason, a similar smell to that which comes from the south. )
通過以上這些文字，老普林尼闡述了自己的看法：他認為肉桂的產地在非洲的埃塞爾比亞，cinnamomum和Cassia是兩個不同的品種。
（肉桂鳥）
但有些專家認為普林尼對cinnamomum的描述似乎不完全符合Ceylon cinnamon （錫蘭肉桂）的特征，文中的cinnamomum 有可能是某種產於非洲的芸香科阿米香樹屬（Amyris balsamifera）植物，饒富價值的樹脂乃是從樹皮流出的。
再來討論一下文中的Cassia。我曾經在自己之前創作的一篇文章中提到：古希臘人和古羅馬人的顏色概念與今人是不太一樣的。他們形容同一個物體時，“白”可以指“不那麽黑”，“黑”可以指“不那麽白”。“紫”指的是暗色調，“紅”可以指帶有紅色調的色彩。所以他們形容的Cassia主幹的顏色若以今人的角度看，是這樣的：靠近根部的那一段（約一尺高）顏色略淺，中間那段色調偏紅，最高的那段顏色偏深。它的樹皮是暗色調的。我查閱了好幾位西方植物學專家對Cassia的注釋，他們認為cassia 就是Laurus cassia，即原產於中國南方的肉桂（ Cinnamomum cassia）。比起溫和的錫蘭肉桂，中國肉桂的味道濃烈辛辣，符合普林尼的描述。
這個觀點值得商榷，西方的植物學家未必個個精通曆史。他們或許不清楚，絲綢之路是在西漢的張騫出使西域後才開辟的。張騫在公元前138—前126年和前119年曾兩次出使西域。在這之後東漢的班超出使中亞，貨物在中國與印度、波斯和羅馬帝國之間往來。 東漢甘英出使大秦，未能抵達大秦，最遠抵達地中海東岸（也有一說是波斯灣東岸）。甘英西行鞏固了絲綢之路。我並沒有在網站上查到中國人通過絲綢之路出口桂皮的說法，即使真的有，也應發生在張騫出使西域之後。而根據希羅多德的記載，公元前五世紀左右的古希臘就有cinnamon和cassia兩種肉桂，所以從時間上看，cassia並不產自中國。
其次，阿拉伯人視肉桂為發財樹，對其產地和來源嚴格保密，運到歐洲的全是肉桂皮成品，絕不可能將香料植物的種子引入歐洲，然後在當地栽培。老普林尼對兩種肉桂樹的描述應該全是道聽途說的。
還有一些專家從古希臘醫師撰寫的大量文章中得出這樣的結論：cinnamon 和cassia 之間沒有特別大的區別，cinnamon 指的是肉桂木，cassia指的是同一棵樹木上的樹皮。它們非常相似，隻有行家才能從口感和氣味來區分它們。我認為這個說法最符合當時的狀況。
