丹尼爾·格羅斯 Daniel Gros
博科尼大學實踐教授,兼博科尼大學歐洲政策製定研究所所長。
2020 - 2022 年,擔任歐洲政策研究中心 (CEPS) 的傑出研究員和董事會成員。
2000 年起擔任 CEPS 董事。
Daniel Gros
Professor of Practice at Bocconi University and Director of the Institute for European Policymaking at Bocconi University.
2020 and 2022 he was Distinguished Fellow and Member of the Board of the Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS).
Since 2000, was the director of CEPS.
美國製造業的衰落不應歸咎於中國
世界報業辛迪加網站7月11日刊登題為《中產階級貿易政策救不了美國製造業》的文章,作者是意大利博科尼大學歐洲決策研究所所長丹尼爾·格羅斯。全文摘編如下:
美國拜登政府已經背棄了自由貿易政策,聲稱幾十年的全球化沒有讓美國製造業工人受益。
美國的貿易政策即將發生重大轉變。總統國家安全事務助理傑克·沙利文近日在布魯金斯學會發表演講時,概述了美國政府的戰略——尋求“建立更公平、更持久的全球經濟秩序”。這一新戰略的核心意思是,盡管全球過去幾十年一直從自由貿易中受益,但美國工人卻沒得到什麽好處。
沙利文提出的第一個證據是“美國的工業基礎已經被挖空”。雖然大多數分析人士把重點放在製造業占國內生產總值(GDP)的比重下降上,但製造業的下降也反映在美國貿易的構成上。本世紀初前後,製成品占美國商品出口的80%以上。到2022年,這一比例降至60%以下。
全球化和自由貿易不大可能是美國貿易中這種去工業化現象的主要催化劑。畢竟,製造業在歐盟出口中所占的比重接近80%。與其他主要發達出口國相比,美國是特例。這也意味著中國作為世界頭號製造業強國的崛起並非美國製造業出口相對下降的原因。
一個更合理的推動因素是能源價格高企和能源產量的增加——尤其是石油和天然氣——的共同作用。石油和天然氣的產出首先解決了美國能源進口問題,隨後又成為美國的另一個出口創收來源。經濟學家將這一現象稱為“荷蘭病”,源自荷蘭出現的一個現象。在1959年發現天然氣田後,荷蘭製造業開始下滑。
雖然能源價格已經從2022年的峰值回落,但仍處高位,尤其是天然氣價格。預計,原油、精煉油和天然氣仍將是美國出口產品的前三名,汽車和半導體分別占第四和第五的位置。
美國經濟還受益於強勁的服務業,其中包括占據行業霸主地位的矽穀巨頭。
在過去20年裏,這種轉變導致生產性資源越來越多地流向資源開采和服務業,製造業受到排擠。許多歐洲人羨慕美國的頁岩能源繁榮和科技產業的興盛,但美國在這些領域稱霸的另一麵是國內製造業的相對衰落。
因此,經常被提到的所謂中國進口商品的增加導致美國本土的失業增多和社會衰退的說法是一種誤導。美國不斷從中國進口製成品是因為頁岩氣生產和科技繁榮令國民收入和消費都不斷增加。中國進口產品的出現隻是這一大趨勢的現象之一,而不是構成美國國內挑戰的根源。美國製造業的衰落不應歸咎於中國。r顯而易見的是,僅通過貿易政策的改變重振美國製造業將是極其困難的。針對特定商品或類別的關稅政策效果有限。有鑒於此,拜登政府並沒有增加新的關稅,雖然它還是保留了特朗普時期的製裁措施。現在的美國決策者似乎更喜歡把“買美國貨”政策作為他們的首要工具,但拜登簽署的《通脹削減法案》證明了這一做法的局限性。
《通脹削減法案》的一個目標是,為美國打造一個對電池以及可再生能源生產至關重要的礦產基地。這意味著加強資源開采而不是製造生產。但是,鑒於資源開采是資本密集型產業,需要的勞動力較少,這與創造更多製造業就業崗位的目的是不一致的。除了關稅和本地生產要求之外,這項貿易政策對保護美國製造業幾乎沒有任何作用。
沙利文認為自由貿易沒有為美國工人帶來好處,在這一點上,他也許是對的。但拜登政府所謂的“中產階級貿易政策”能否顯著改善中產階級的處境卻值得懷疑。
針對中產階級的貿易政策無法拯救美國製造業
https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/biden-trade-agenda-will-not-bring-back-american-manufacturing-jobs-by-daniel-gros-2023-07
2023 年 7 月 11 日 丹尼爾·格羅斯
拜登政府背棄了自由貿易,認為幾十年來的全球化並沒有讓美國製造業工人受益。 這也許是真的,但其關於“更公平、更持久”的國際經濟秩序的新計劃不太可能改善他們的工資或就業前景。
米蘭 — — 美國貿易政策正處於重大轉變的風口浪尖。 最近在布魯金斯學會的一次演講中,喬·拜登總統的國家安全顧問傑克·沙利文概述了政府“建立一個更公平、更持久的全球經濟秩序”的戰略。 這種新方法的核心是相信,盡管世界在過去幾十年裏從自由貿易中獲益,但美國工人卻受到了不公平的待遇。
沙利文的第一個證據是“美國的工業基礎已經被掏空”。 雖然大多數分析師關注的是製造業占 GDP 份額的下降——2021 年為 11%,而 1953 年為 28.1%,但製造業的下降也反映在美國貿易構成中。 世紀之交左右,製成品占美國商品出口的80%以上。 到2022年,這一比例已縮減至60%以下。
全球化和自由貿易不太可能是美國貿易去工業化的主要催化劑。 畢竟,歐盟製造業的出口份額仍接近 80%,中國則徘徊在 93-95% 左右。 與其他主要發達出口國相比,美國是一個例外。 這意味著中國崛起為世界領先的製造業強國並不是美國製造業出口相對下降的原因。
一個更合理的驅動因素是高能源價格和能源產量增加的結合,特別是石油和天然氣,它首先取代了進口,然後為美國提供了替代的出口收入來源。 經濟學家將這種現象稱為“荷蘭病”,因 1959 年發現天然氣田帶來暴利和貨幣快速升值後,荷蘭製造業出現衰退,因而得名。
盡管能源價格已較 2022 年的峰值有所回落,但仍處於高位,尤其是天然氣。 因此,預計原油、精煉石油和天然氣仍將是美國三大出口產品,汽車和半導體分別占據第四和第五位。
美國經濟還受益於強勁的服務業,包括矽穀巨頭無與倫比的主導地位,這代表了快速擴大的出口收入來源。 目前,服務出口幾乎與製造業出口持平,而且美國目前在服務貿易方麵擁有大量且不斷增長的順差。
在過去的二十年裏,這種轉變導致越來越多的生產資源流向資源開采和服務業,從而擠出了製造業。 許多歐洲人羨慕美國的頁岩能源繁榮和蓬勃發展的科技產業。 但美國在這些領域占據主導地位的另一麵是國內製造業的相對下滑。
因此,經常被引用的說法是,來自中國的進口增加導致美國腹地出現部分失業和社會衰退,這種說法具有誤導性。 美國從中國進口製成品的增加是因為頁岩油和科技的繁榮促進了國民收入和消費。 中國的進口隻是這一總體趨勢的表象,而不是國內挑戰的根源。 歐盟是一個比美國開放得多的經濟體,沒有經曆過“中國衝擊”造成的同樣的社會混亂和製造業空心化——這進一步證明中國不應為美國製造業的衰退負責。
事實是,沒有任何一個因素可以完全解釋像製造業衰退這樣的複雜現象。 在發達國家,用於商品生產的經濟份額經曆了長期下降。 美國的與眾不同之處在於該行業對出口的貢獻。 其他美國特有的因素,例如美國教育體係的狀況以及缺乏培訓工人進行體力勞動的學徒計劃,也可能發揮了作用。 但這種轉變主要是由宏觀經濟力量推動的。
明顯的含義是,通過貿易政策重振美國製造業將極其困難。 針對特定商品或類別的關稅效果有限,美國前總統唐納德·特朗普對中國進口商品征收貿易關稅就證明了這一點。 因此,拜登政府不考慮實施新的措施,盡管它保留了從特朗普那裏繼承的措施。
今天的政策製定者似乎傾向於將“購買美國貨”政策作為他們的主要工具。 但拜登的標誌性立法《減少通貨膨脹法案》(IRA)說明了這種方法的局限性。
IRA 的目標之一是為某些被認為對電池和可再生能源生產至關重要的礦物建立美國工業基地。 這將需要加強與製造業相關的資源開采。 但是,鑒於資源開采是資本密集型的,並且需要較少的工人 — — 與製造業的 1100 萬工人相比,大約需要 50 萬 — — 依賴它與創造更多的製造業就業機會是不一致的。
為了抵消對礦物開采的支持,愛爾蘭共和軍對國內電池生產提供了慷慨的補貼,以及對電動汽車和可再生能源的本地含量要求。 但是,除了關稅和本地含量要求之外,貿易政策對保護美國製造業幾乎無能為力。
此外,任何通過獲得廉價能源來促進美國製造業複蘇的嚐試都會給宏觀經濟帶來阻力。 較低的能源成本可以為美國製造業提供暫時的優勢。 但從長遠來看,直接出口廉價能源總是比用其生產製成品更有利可圖,因為廉價能源的收入會推高收入和工資。 值得記住的是,荷蘭製造業的萎縮是因為——而不是盡管——擁有豐富的天然氣。
沙利文的觀察可能是正確的,即自由貿易並沒有給美國工人帶來好處。 但拜登政府的“針對中產階級的貿易政策”能否顯著改善他們的處境值得懷疑。
A Trade Policy for the Middle Class Will Not Save US Manufacturing
The Biden administration has turned its back on free trade, arguing that decades of globalization have not benefited US manufacturing workers. That may be true, but its new plan for a “fairer, more durable” international economic order is unlikely to improve their wages or job prospects.
MILAN – US trade policy is on the cusp of a major transformation. In a recent speech at the Brookings Institution, Jake Sullivan, President Joe Biden’s national security adviser, outlined the administration’s strategy to “build a fairer, more durable global economic order.” At the heart of this new approach is the belief that, although the world has reaped the benefits of free trade over the past several decades, American workers got a raw deal.
Sullivan’s first piece of evidence is that “America’s industrial base had been hollowed out.” While most analysts focus on manufacturing’s declining share of GDP – 11% in 2021, compared to 28.1% in 1953 – the decline of manufacturing is also reflected in the composition of US trade. Around the turn of the century, manufactured goods accounted for more than 80% of US merchandise exports. By 2022, this share had shrunk to below 60%.
It is unlikely that globalization and free trade were the primary catalysts of this de-industrialization of US trade. After all, manufacturing’s share of exports has remained close to 80% for the European Union and hovers around 93-95% for China. Compared to other major developed exporters, the US is an outlier. This implies that China’s rise as the world’s leading manufacturing powerhouse is not the cause of the relative decline in US manufacturing exports.
A more plausible driver is the combination of high energy prices and the increase in energy production, particularly oil and natural gas, which first supplanted imports and then provided the United States with an alternative source of export earnings. Economists refer to this phenomenon as the “Dutch Disease,” named for the decline of manufacturing in the Netherlands after the discovery of natural-gas fields in 1959 led to windfall profits and rapid currency appreciation.
While energy prices have come down from their 2022 peak, they remain elevated, especially for natural gas. Crude and refined petroleum and natural gas are thus expected to remain the top three US export products, with automobiles and semiconductors occupying the fourth and fifth spots, respectively.
The US economy also benefits from a robust services sector, including the unrivaled dominance of Silicon Valley giants, which represents a rapidly expanding source of export earnings. Services exports are now almost on par with manufacturing exports, and the US currently runs a large and growing surplus in services trade.
Over the past two decades, this shift has led to an increasing share of productive resources going toward resource extraction and services, crowding out manufacturing. Many Europeans envy the US for its shale-energy boom and thriving tech industry. But the flip side of US dominance in these sectors was the relative decline in domestic manufacturing.
Thus, the frequently cited claim that increased imports from China led to pockets of unemployment and social decline across the American heartland is misleading. The rise in US imports of manufactured goods from China occurred because the shale and tech booms boosted national income and consumption. Chinese imports were a symptom of this general trend rather than the root cause of domestic challenges. The EU, a much more open economy than the US, has not experienced the same social dislocations and hollowing out of manufacturing as a result of the “China shock” – further evidence that China is not to blame for the decline of US manufacturing.
The fact is that no single factor can fully explain a complex phenomenon like the decline of manufacturing. The share of the economy devoted to the production of goods has undergone a secular decline across the developed world. What sets the US apart is the sector’s contribution to exports. Other US-specific factors, such as the state of the American education system and the absence of apprenticeship programs to train workers in manual tasks, may have also played a role. But this shift was driven primarily by macroeconomic forces.
The obvious implication is that reviving US manufacturing through trade policy will be extremely difficult. Tariffs targeting specific goods or categories have only limited effectiveness, as evidenced by former US President Donald Trump’s trade tariffs on imported Chinese goods. For this reason, the Biden administration is not considering imposing new ones, although it has retained those inherited from Trump. Today’s policymakers seem to favor “Buy American” policies as their primary tool. But the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), Biden’s signature legislation, illustrates the limits of this approach.
One goal of the IRA is to establish a US industrial base for certain minerals deemed critical for the production of batteries and renewable energy. This would entail strengthening resource extraction relative to manufacturing. But, given that resource extraction is capital-intensive and requires fewer workers – roughly 500,000 compared to the manufacturing sector’s 11 million – relying on it is inconsistent with creating more manufacturing jobs.
To offset the support for mineral extraction, the IRA includes generous subsidies for domestic battery production, along with local content requirements for electric vehicles and renewables. But, apart from tariffs and local content requirements, there is very little that trade policy can do to protect the US manufacturing sector.
Moreover, any attempt to foster a resurgence of US manufacturing through access to cheap energy will create its own macroeconomic headwinds. Lower energy costs could provide US manufacturing with a temporary advantage. But in the long run, it will always be more profitable to export cheap energy directly rather than use it to produce manufactured goods, because the income from cheap energy will drive up incomes and wages. It is worth remembering that the Dutch manufacturing sector shrank because of – not in spite of – an abundance of natural gas.
Sullivan may have been correct in his observation that free trade has not delivered for American workers. But it is doubtful that the Biden administration’s “trade policy for the middle class” will significantly improve their situation.