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Prevention
Exercise in middle age reduces the risk of Parkinson's disease later in life.[7] Caffeine also appears protective with a greater decrease in risk occurring with a larger intake of caffeinated beverages such as coffee.[64] Although tobacco smoke causes adverse health effects, decreases life expectancy and quality of life, it may reduce the risk of PD by a third when compared to non-smokers.[46] The basis for this effect is not known, but possibilities include an effect of nicotine as a dopamine stimulant.[46][65] Tobacco smoke contains compounds that act as MAO inhibitors that also might contribute to this effect.[66]
Antioxidants, such as vitamins C and D, have been proposed to protect against the disease but results of studies have been contradictory and no positive effect has been proven.[46] The results regarding fat and fatty acids have been contradictory, with various studies reporting protective effects, risk-increasing effects or no effects.[46] Also, there have been preliminary indications of a possible protective role of estrogens and anti-inflammatory drugs.[46]
