曆史真相
古今中外曆史政治
甲午戰爭（又稱中日甲午戰爭、第一次中日戰爭；日稱日清戰爭）是清朝和日本之間為爭奪朝鮮半島控製權而爆發的一場戰爭。由於發生年為1894年即清光緒二十年幹支為甲午，史稱“甲午戰爭”。
日本旗艦鬆島號。
日期： 1894年8月1日 - 1895年4月17日
地點： 朝鮮半島、中國東北
結果： 日本勝利
起因：
領土變更： 日本控製朝鮮半島
中國割讓台灣、澎湖及遼東半島給日本
| 參戰方 | |
|---|---|
 清國 |  日本 |
| 指揮官 | |
| 李鴻章 | 山縣有朋 |
| 兵力 | |
| 630,000 北洋軍 北洋艦隊 | 240,000 日本軍 日本帝國海軍 |
| 傷亡 | |
| 35,000人死亡或受傷 | 13,823人死亡 3,973受傷 |
起因 沙俄在中國東北與朝鮮半島勢力的擴張使日本擔心在遼東半島與朝鮮的霸權。在1875年，日本與朝鮮簽署了不平等《江華條約》，使朝鮮給與日本貿易特權與互相承認自主獨立國家。此條約在朝鮮造成了保守黨與維新派的鬥爭。保守黨想維持“事大交小”傳統的外交方式，維新派想因此脫離於清朝的冊封關係，與西方國家結交來發展朝鮮。但清朝仍然控製了李朝朝廷保守的官員與貴族。 在1884年，朝鮮維新派試圖推翻李朝。在朝鮮的邀請下，袁世凱帶領清軍開入漢城，並且殺了幾個日本人。中日天津會議專條避免了兩國的戰爭，日本與清朝同時從朝鮮撤兵，和約定兩國或一國要派兵，應先互行文知照。 1894年春，朝鮮爆發“東學黨”農民起義，朝鮮政府於6月3日請求清政府派兵協助鎮壓。
交戰雙方
甲午戰爭形勢圖
清朝
北洋海軍自1888年正式建軍後，配置有主力艦定遠號及鎮遠號，各有12寸巨炮4尊，航速分別為14.5節及15.4節。甲午戰爭前夕，英國的阿摩士莊（Armstrong）船廠向李鴻章推銷世界航速最快，達23節的四千噸巡洋艦。這艘艦最後被日本買下了，也就是後來的吉野號，在甲午一戰發揮極大戰力。1894年5月下旬李鴻章校閱北洋海軍，奏稱：“北洋各艦及廣東三船沿途行駛操演，船陣整齊變化，雁行魚貫，操縱自如……以魚雷六艇試演襲營陣法，攻守多方，備極奇奧。”“於駛行之際，擊穹遠之靶，發速中多。經遠一船，發十六炮，中至十五。廣東三船，中靶亦在七成以上。”“夜間合操，水師全軍萬炮並發，起止如一。英、法、俄、日本各國，均以兵船來觀，稱為節製精嚴。”戰爭前夕，北洋艦隊的大沽、威海衛（今山東威海）和旅順（今屬遼寧大連）三大基地建成，英國觀察員看完北洋艦隊的操演後上書海軍部，也認為北洋艦隊的戰力不容小覷。
但是後期因為李鴻章解雇了當時訓練海軍的英國人琅威理，引致北洋艦隊軍紀出現問題，“有某西人偶登其船，見海軍提督正與巡兵團同坐鬥竹牌也。”“每北洋封凍，海軍歲例巡南洋，率淫賭於香港、上海，識者早憂之”。1888年後因為軍費被挪用去修建頤和園，所以北洋海軍未添船購炮，“從前撥定北洋經費號稱二百萬兩，近年停解者多，歲僅收五六十萬。”[1]“中國水雷船排列海邊，無人掌管，外則鐵鏽堆積，內則穢汙狼藉，業已無可駛用。”至於領導丁汝昌“孤寄群閩人之上，遂為閩黨所製，威令不行”。劉步蟾則被人們稱為“實際上之提督者”。
日本
1882年，日本海軍還隻是魚雷艇和二千噸以下的近海鐵甲艦為主，無大型鐵甲巡洋艦。1885年，日本提出十年的擴軍計劃，意圖超過北洋海軍。1886年，法國海軍工程師白勞易(Louis-?mile Bertin)受雇建造4700噸級大型鐵甲巡洋艦“鬆島號”和“厳島號”。1890年時，中國北洋艦隊的總排水量為27000噸，而日本海軍的總排水量在17000噸以上。日本以國家財政收入的60％來發展海、陸軍，當時日本政府的年度財政收入隻有八千萬日元。1893年起，明治天皇又決定每年從自己的宮廷經費中撥出三十萬日圓，再從官員的薪水裏取十分之一，補充造船費用。到了1894年甲午戰爭時，日本海軍艦隊總排水量為72000噸，並且多有配置速射炮的新式艦艇。相反，北洋艦隊自1888年正式成立後，再未添加任何船隻。1891年後，又停購槍炮彈藥，後來海軍軍費挪用修了慈禧的頤和園。
戰前日本實際動員兵力達240616人，174017人有參戰經驗，海軍擁有軍艦32艘、魚雷艇24艘，排水量72000噸，超越北洋水師。日本對清廷改革後的實力仍有顧忌，對於北洋水師不敢輕敵，1880年日本參謀本部長山縣有朋的調查報告中指出，大清帝國平時可征兵425萬，戰時可達850萬人之多，“鄰邦之兵備愈強，則本邦之兵備亦更不可懈”。
過程
甲午戰爭始於1894年7月25日的豐島海戰，至8月1日清朝政府對日宣戰和日本明治天皇發布宣戰詔書，1895年4月17日以簽署《馬關條約》而告結束。整個戰爭持續近9個月，依據戰場轉換及雙方作戰態勢的變化，大致分為三個階段。
第一階段
第一階段，從1894年7月25日到9月17日。戰爭分陸戰與海戰雙向進行，陸戰主要是在朝鮮半島上的平壤之戰，海戰主要是黃海海戰。
陸麵戰鬥在三個戰場同時展開：大同江南岸戰場、玄武門外戰場、城西南戰場。當時駐守平壤的清軍三十五營共一萬七千人，日軍也有一萬六千多人，雙方戰力相埒。日軍第九混成旅團首先向大同江南岸清軍發起進攻，太原鎮總兵馬玉崑奮勇抗擊，日軍無功而返。同時日海軍聯合艦隊進入黃海合擊北洋水師艦隊，這是人類曆史上第一次的大規模現代海戰，至今仍是中國曆史上唯一的一次。激戰5小時後，北洋艦隊損失巡洋艦5艘，受傷4艘，日艦僅傷5艘。9月15日，日軍分三路總攻平壤，戰鬥至為激烈，高州鎮總兵左寶貴不幸中炮犧牲，隨後玄武門失守，葉誌超下令徹退，六日內狂泄五百餘裏，26日清軍直抵鴨綠江以北的中國境內。日本聯合艦隊達到了控製黃海製海權的目的。
第二階段
第二階段，從1894年9月17日到11月22日。戰場位於遼東半島，以陸戰為主。9月25日，日軍在鴨綠江上搭浮橋搶渡成功，向虎山清軍陣地發起進攻。清軍守將馬金敘、聶士成被迫撤出陣地。日軍陷虎山。其他清軍各部不戰而逃，山縣有朋即將第一軍司令部移於虎山。26日，日軍占領了九連城和安東縣（今丹東），同日日軍在旅順花園口登陸，10月9日，攻占金州，10日陷大連灣，至此清軍在鴨綠江防線全線崩潰。25日旅順陷落，日軍進行大屠殺。
第三階段
第三階段，從1894年11月22日到1895年4月17日，有威海衛之戰和遼東之戰。1895年1月20日，日本第二軍共兩萬五千人，在日艦掩護下開始在榮成龍須島登陸。30日日軍集中兵力進攻威海衛南幫炮台。營官周家恩壯烈犧牲，炮台終被日軍攻占。2月3日日軍陷威海衛城，劉公島成為孤島，日本聯合艦隊司令伊東祐亨曾致書丁汝昌勸降。10日，定遠號彈藥告罄，劉步蟾下令將艦炸沉，隨後劉步蟾自殺。11日，丁汝昌自殺。17日，日軍在劉公島登陸，北洋艦隊全軍覆沒。北線日軍在海軍配合，一路攻陷菲尼克斯、海城、營口、田莊台。清廷求和心切，派李鴻章為全權大臣，赴日議和。4月17日簽定《中日馬關條約》，甲午戰爭結束。
分析
豐島海戰和黃海海戰兩次遭遇日本聯合艦隊，北洋艦隊被擊沉多艘大型艦艇，但未能擊沉一艘日艦，也無發射魚雷打擊日艦的戰績。據查是丁汝昌“隻識弓馬”，一幹管帶也全用錯了炮彈，不用海戰時的開花爆破彈，用了穿甲彈甚至訓練彈。豐島海戰中，日本吉野號被一枚濟遠艦150毫米口徑火炮擊中右舷，擊毀舢板數隻，穿透鋼甲，擊壞發電機，墜入機艙的防護鋼板上，然後又轉入機艙裏。可是由於彈頭裏麵未裝炸藥，所以擊中而不爆炸，使吉野僥幸免於報廢。黃海海戰中，北洋海軍發射的炮彈有的彈藥中“實有泥沙”，有的引信中“僅實煤灰，故彈中敵船而不能裂”。當時在鎮遠艦上協助作戰的美國人麥吉芬（Paul W. Bamford，1860-1897，美國安納波利斯海軍學院畢業）認為，吉野號能逃脫，是因為所中炮彈隻是固體彈頭的穿甲彈[2]。據統計，在定遠和鎮遠發射的197枚12英寸（305毫米）口徑炮彈中，半數是固體彈頭的穿甲彈，而不是爆破彈頭的開花彈[3]。在直隸候補道徐建寅的《上督辦軍務處查驗北洋海軍稟》之後附有《北洋海軍各員優劣單》、《北洋海軍各船大炮及存船各種彈子數目清折》、《北洋海軍存庫備用各種大炮彈子數目清折》中統計，參加過黃海大戰的定遠、鎮遠、靖遠、來遠、濟遠、廣丙7艦的存艦存庫炮彈，僅開花爆破彈一項即達3431枚。其中，供305毫米口徑炮使用的炮彈有403枚，210毫米口徑炮彈952枚，150毫米口徑炮彈1237枚，120毫米口徑炮彈362枚，6英寸口徑炮彈477枚。黃海海戰後，又撥給北洋海軍360枚開花彈，其中305毫米口徑炮彈160枚，210、150毫米口徑炮彈各100枚。在3431枚開花彈中，有3071枚早在黃海海戰前就已撥給北洋海軍。蘇小東《甲午年徐建寅奉旨查驗北洋海軍考察》猜測：“至於這批開花彈為什麽沒有用於黃海海戰，惟一的解釋就是它們當時根本不在艦上，而是一直被存放在旅順、威海基地的彈藥庫裏。由此可見，造成北洋海軍在黃海海戰中彈藥不足的責任不在機器局，也不在軍械局，而在北洋海軍提督丁汝昌身上。”在中日雙方開戰後，丁汝昌執行李鴻章“保船製敵”的方針，消極避戰，“仍心存僥幸，出海護航時竟然連彈藥都沒有帶足，致使北洋海軍在彈藥不足的情況下與日本艦隊進行了一場長達5個小時的海上會戰，結果極大地影響了戰鬥力的發揮，也加重了損失的程度”。
北洋水師與聯合艦隊進攻火力對比如下，北洋水師略遜一籌，但重炮占優勢，如果炮彈選擇得當可以重創日艦。就防守能力而言，北洋水師略勝一籌，定遠號、鎮遠號的護甲厚14寸，即使是經遠號、來遠號的護甲厚也達9.5寸。海戰結束後，定遠號、鎮遠號的護甲無一處被擊穿。就平均船速而言，北洋水師較慢，為15.5節(即海裏/小時)，聯合艦隊的本隊15.6節也不快，但包括吉野號在內的第一遊擊編隊為19.4節，大大高於北洋水師。
| 軍艦總數 | 30厘米重炮 | 20-30厘米大炮 | 15-20厘米輕炮 | 15厘米速射炮 | 艦艇排水量 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 北洋艦隊 | 12 | 8 | 16 | 149 | 0 | 3.5萬噸 |
| 日本艦隊 | 10 | 3 | 8 | 160 | 97 | 4.1萬噸 |
此外，北洋海軍各主力艦都設有魚雷管3-4具，但是，在黃海海戰中，並沒有對日艦實施魚雷攻擊。丁汝昌在匯報戰況時，也隻字未提已方發射魚雷，而隻說日艦對經遠和致遠發動魚雷攻擊。購艦時就配備好的大批魚雷在戰爭爆發後可能也和大批開花彈不在艦上一樣，被放在基地的倉庫裏派不上用場。另外，各艦炮彈數量也未帶足，海戰時炮彈在五個小時內用盡。戰至最後，未受大傷仍可繼續打擊日艦的7000噸巨艦定遠、鎮遠彈藥告竭，分別僅餘12英寸口徑鋼鐵彈3發、2發，不得不退出戰場。
如果考慮到上麵所提到的庫存彈藥可能是因為無法使用而擱置的，則丁汝昌責任就較小，但李鴻章的責任並無減輕。擔任天津軍械局總辦、負責軍需供應的張士珩是李鴻章的外甥，供給海軍的彈藥不合格。梁啟超評論說：“槍或苦窳，彈或贗物，槍不對彈，藥不隨械，謂從前管軍械之人廉明，誰能信之？”另外，丁汝昌戰前提出在主要艦船上配置速射炮以抵消日艦速射炮的優勢，需銀六十萬兩。李鴻章聲稱無款。北洋艦隊在黃海海戰中戰敗，他才上奏前籌海軍巨款分儲各處情況：“匯豐銀行存銀一百零七萬兩千九百兩；德華銀行存銀四十四萬兩；怡和洋行存銀五十五萬九千六百兩 ；開平礦務局領存五十二萬七千五百兩；總計二百六十萬兩。”
結果及影響
甲午戰爭對遠東戰略格局產生了深刻的影響，清朝軍隊撤出朝鮮半島，清朝割讓台灣、澎湖及其附屬島嶼予日本，向日本開放多個中國內陸的港口城市，日本又獲2.3億兩白銀的戰爭賠款（其中三千萬兩為清朝換回遼東半島的費用），經濟迅速發展並進一步擴軍備戰，開始成為遠東的主要戰爭策源地，同時日本崛起改變了遠東地區由英國和俄國對立和爭霸的原有格局,導致數年後的英日聯盟和日俄開戰。而中國在甲午戰爭中的失敗（北洋水師的覆滅）標誌著洋務運動的失敗，大清帝國的國際地位自此一落千丈，再次成為列強鯨吞蠶食的對象。清朝國內的改革派對自身的弱點有了更深的認識，準備積極進行進一步的改革﹝即戊戌變法﹞。
主要戰役
豐島海戰
黃海海戰
平壤之戰
旅順大屠殺
威海衛海戰
乙未戰爭
| First Sino-Japanese War, major battles and troop movements | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Combatants | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Qing Empire (China) |  Empire of Japan | ||||||||
| Commanders | |||||||||
| Li Hongzhang | Yamagata Aritomo | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 630,000 men Beiyang Army, Beiyang Fleet | 240,000 menImperial Japanese Army, Imperial Japanese Navy | ||||||||
| Casualties | |||||||||
| 35,000 dead or wounded | 13,823 dead, 3,973 wounded | ||||||||
| First Sino-Japanese War |
|---|
| Pungdo (naval) – Seonghwan –Pyongyang – Yalu River (naval) – Jiuliangcheng (Yalu) – Lushunkou – Weihaiwei – Yingkou |
The First Sino-Japanese War (Traditional Chinese: 中日甲午戰爭; Pinyin: Zhōngrì Jiǎwǔ Zhànzhēng; Japanese: 日清戦爭 Romaji: Nisshin Sensō) (1 August 1894–17 April 1895) was a war fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan over the control of Korea. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the degeneration and enfeeblement of the Qing Dynasty and demonstrate how successful modernization had been in Japan since the Meiji Restoration as compared with the Self-Strengthening Movement in China. The principal results were a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan and a fatal blow to the Qing Dynasty and the Chinese classical tradition. These trends would result later in the 1911 Revolution.
Background and causes
Prologue
Japan long had a desire to expand its realm to the mainland of east Asia. During Toyotomi Hideyoshi's rule in the late 16th century, Japan had invaded Korea (1592-1598) but after initial successes had failed to achieve complete victory and control of Korea.
After two centuries, the seclusion policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. The years following the Meiji Restoration of 1868 and the fall of the Shogunate had seen Japan transform itself from a feudal and comparatively backward society to a modern industrial state. The Japanese had sent delegations and students around the world in order to learn and assimilate western arts and sciences, this was done to prevent Japan falling under foreign domination and also enable Japan to compete equally with the Western powers.
Conflict over Korea
As a newly emergent country, Japan turned its attention towards Korea. It was vital for Japan, in order to protect its own interests and security, to either annex Korea before it fell prey (or was annexed) to another power or to insure its effective independence by opening its resources and reforming its administration. As one Japanese statesman put it, "an arrow pointed at the heart of Japan". Japan felt that another power having a military presence on the Korean peninsula would have been detrimental to Japanese national security, and so Japan resolved to end the centuries-old Chinese suzerainty over Korea. Moreover, Japan realized that Korea’s coal and iron ore deposits would benefit Japan's increasingly-expanding industrial base.
Korea had traditionally been a tributary state and continued to be so under the influence of China's Qing dynasty, which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials gathered around the royal family of the Joseon Dynasty. Opinion in Korea itself was split; conservatives wanted to retain the traditional subservient relationship with China, while reformists wanted to establish closer ties with Japan and western nations. After two Opium Wars and the Sino-French War, China had become weak and was unable to resist western intervention and encroachment (see Unequal Treaties). Japan saw this as an opportunity to replace Chinese influence in Korea with its own.
On February 26, 1876, after certain incidents and confrontations involving Korean isolationists and the Japanese, Japan imposed the Treaty of Ganghwa on Korea, forcing Korea to open itself to Japanese and foreign trade and to proclaim its independence from China in its foreign relations.
In 1884 a group of pro-Japanese reformers briefly overthrow the pro-Chinese conservative Korean government in a bloody coup d'état. However, the pro-Chinese faction, with assistance from Chinese troops under General Yuan Shikai, succeeded in regaining control with an equally bloody counter-coup which resulted not only in the deaths of a number of the reformers, but also in the burning of the Japanese legation and the deaths of several legation guards and citizens in the process. This caused an incident between Japan and China, but was eventually settled by the Sino-Japanese Convention of Tientsin of 1885 in which the two sides agreed to (a) pull their expeditionary forces out of Korea simultaneously; (b) not send military instructors for the training of the Korean military; and (c) notify the other side beforehand should one decide to send troops to Korea. The Japanese, however, were frustrated by repeated Chinese attempts to undermine their influence in Korea.
Status of combatants
Japan
Japan's reforms under the Meiji emperor gave significant priority to naval construction and the creation of an effective modern national army and navy. Japan sent numerous military officials abroad for training, and evaluation of the relative strengths and tactics of European armies and navies.
The Imperial Japanese Navy
| Major Combatants |
|---|
| Protected Cruisers |
| Matsushima (flagship) |
| Itsukushima |
| Hashidate |
| Naniwa |
| Takachiho |
| Yaeyama |
| Akitsushima |
| Yoshino |
| Izumi |
| Cruisers |
| Chiyoda |
| Armored Corvettes |
| Hiei |
| Kongō |
| Ironclad Warship |
| Fusō |
The Imperial Japanese Navy was modeled after the Royal Navy, at the time the foremost naval power in the world. British advisors were sent to Japan to train, advise and educate the naval establishment, while students were in turn sent to Great Britain in order to study and observe the Royal Navy. Through drilling and tuition by Royal Navy instructors, Japan was able to possess a navy expertly skilled in the arts of gunnery and seamanship.
At the start of hostilities the Imperial Japanese Navy contained a fleet (although lacking in battleships) of 12 modern warships (Izumi being added during the war), one frigate (Takao), 22 torpedo boats, and numerous auxiliary/armed merchant cruisers and converted liners.
Japan did not yet have the resources to acquire battleships and so planned to employ the "Jeune Ecole" ("young school") doctrine which favoured small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, against bigger units.
Many of Japan’s major warships were built in British and French shipyards (eight British, three French, and two Japanese-built) and 16 of the torpedo boats were known to have been built in France and assembled in Japan.
The Imperial Japanese Army
The Meiji era government at first modeled the army on the French Army—French advisers had been sent to Japan with the two military missions (in 1872-1880 and 1884; these were the second and third missions respectively, the first had been under the shogunate). Nationwide conscription was enforced in 1873 and a western-style conscript army was established; military schools and arsenals were also built.
In 1886 Japan turned towards the German Army, specifically the Prussian model as the basis for its army. Its doctrines, military system and organisation were studied in detail and adopted by the IJA. In 1885, Jakob Meckel, a German adviser implemented new measures such the reorganization of the command structure of the army into divisions and regiments; the strengthening of army logistics, transportation, and structures (thereby increasing mobility); and the establishment of artillery and engineering regiments as independent commands.
By the 1890s, Japan had at its disposal a modern, professionally trained western-style army which was relatively well equipped and supplied. Its officers had studied abroad and were well educated in the latest tactics and strategy.
By the start of the war, the Imperial Japanese Army could field a total force of 120,000 men in two armies and five divisions.
| Imperial Japanese Army Composition 1894-1895 |
| 1st Japanese Army |
|---|
| 3rd Provincial Division (Nagoya) |
| 5th Provincial Division (Hiroshima) |
| 2nd Japanese Army |
| 1st Provincial Division (Tokyo) |
| 2nd Provincial Division (Sendai) |
| 6th Provincial Division (Kumamoto) |
| In Reserve |
| 4th Provincial Division (Osaka) |
| Invasion of Formosa (Taiwan) |
| Imperial Guards Division |
China
Although the Beiyang Force was the best equipped and symbolized the new modern Chinese military, morale and corruption were serious problems; politicians systematically embezzled funds, even during the war. Logistics were a huge problem, as construction of railroads in Manchuria had been discouraged. The morale of the Chinese armies was generally very low due to lack of pay and prestige, use of opium, and poor leadership which contributed to some rather ignominious withdrawals such as the abandonment of the very well fortified and defensible Weihaiwei.
Beiyang Army
Qing Dynasty China did not have a national army, but following the Taiping Rebellion, had been segregated into separate Manchu, Mongol, Hui (Muslim) and Han Chinese armies, which were further divided into largely independent regional commands. During the war, most of the fighting was done by the Beiyang Army and Beiyang Fleet while pleas calling for help to other Chinese armies and navies were completely ignored due to regional rivalry.
Beiyang Fleet
| Beiyang Fleet | Major Combatants |
|---|---|
| Ironclad Battleships | Dingyuan (flagship), Zhenyuan |
| Armoured Cruisers | King Yuen, Lai Yuen |
| Protected Cruisers | Chih Yuen, Ching Yuen |
| Cruisers | Torpedo Cruisers - Tsi Yuen, Kuang Ping/Kwang Ping | Chaoyong, Yangwei |
| Coastal warship | Ping Yuen |
| Corvette | Kwan Chia |
13 or so Torpedo boats, numerous Gun boats and chartered merchant vessels
Early stages of the war
In 1893 a pro-Japanese Korean revolutionary, Kim Ok-kyun, was assassinated in Shanghai, allegedly by agents of Yuan Shikai. His body was then put aboard a Chinese warship and sent back to Korea, where it was supposedly quartered and displayed as a warning to other rebels. The Japanese government took this as a direct affront. The situation became increasingly tense later in the year when the Chinese government, at the request of the Korean Emperor, sent troops to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion. The Chinese government informed the Japanese government of its decision to send troops to the Korean peninsula in accordance with the Convention of Tientsin, and sent General Yuan Shikai as its plenipotentiary at the head of 2,800 troops. The Japanese countered that they consider this action to be a violation of the Convention, and sent their own expeditionary force (the Oshima Composite Brigade) of 8,000 troops to Korea. The Japanese force subsequently seized the emperor, occupied the Royal Palace in Seoul by 8 June 1894, and replaced the existing government with the members from the pro-Japanese faction. Though Chinese troops were already leaving Korea, finding themselves unwanted there, the new pro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel the Chinese troops forcefully, while Japan shipped more troops to Korea. The legitimacy of the new government was rejected by China, and the stage was thus set for conflict.
Events during the war
War between China and Japan was officially declared on 1 August 1894, though some combat had already taken place. The Imperial Japanese Army attacked and defeated the poorly-prepared Chinese Beiyang Army, at the Battle of Pyongyang on 16 September 1894, and quickly pushed north into Manchuria. The Imperial Japanese Navy destroyed 8 out of 10 warships of the Chinese Beiyang Fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894. The Chinese fleet subsequently retreated behind the Weihaiwei fortifications. However, they were then surprised by Japanese ground forces, who outflanked the harbor's defenses.
By 21 November 1894, the Japanese had taken the city of Lüshunkou (later known as Port Arthur). The Japanese army allegedly massacred thousands of the city's civilian Chinese inhabitants, in an event that came to be called the Port Arthur Massacre.
After Weihaiwei's fall on 2 February 1895 and an easing of harsh winter conditions, Japanese troops pressed further into southern Manchuria and northern China. By March 1895 the Japanese had fortified posts that commanded the sea approaches to Beijing.
End of the war
The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed on 17 April 1895. China recognised the total independence of Korea, ceded the Liaodong Peninsula (In present-day south of Liaoning Province), Taiwan/Formosa and the Pescadores Islands to Japan "in perpetuity". Additionally, China was to pay Japan 200 million Kuping taels as reparation. China also signed a commercial treaty permitting Japanese ships to operate on the Yangtze River, to operate manufacturing factories in treaty ports and to open four more ports to foreign trade. The Triple Intervention however forced Japan to give up the Liaodong Peninsula in exchange for another 450 million Kuping taels.
Aftermath
The Japanese success of the war was the result of the modernisation and industrialisation embarked on two decades earlier. The war demonstrated the superiority of Japanese tactics and training as a result of the adoption of a western style military. The Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were able to inflict a string of defeats on the Chinese through foresight, endurance, strategy and power of organization. Japanese prestige rose in the eyes of the world. The victory established Japan as a power (if not a great power) on equal terms with the west and as the dominant power in Asia.
The war for China revealed the failure of its government, its policies, the corruption of the administration system and the decaying state of the Qing dynasty (something that had been recognised for decades). Anti-foreign sentiment and agitation grew and would later accumulate in the form of the Boxer Rebellion five years later. Throughout the 19th century the Qing dynasty was unable to prevent foreign encroachment—this together with calls for reform and the Boxer Rebellion would be the key factors that would lead to 1911 revolution and the downfall of the Qing dynasty in 1912.
Although Japan had achieved what it had set out to accomplish, namely to end Chinese influence over Korea, Japan reluctantly had been forced to relinquished the Liaodong Peninsula (Port Arthur) in exchange for an increased financial indemnity. The European powers (Russia especially) while having no objection to the other clauses of the treaty, did feel that Japan should not gain Port Arthur, for they had their own ambitions in that part of the world. Russia persuaded Germany and France to join her in applying diplomatic pressure on the Japanese, resulting in the Triple Intervention of 23 April 1895.
In 1898 Russia signed a 25-year lease on Liaodong Peninsula and preceded to set a naval station at Port Arthur. Although this infuriated the Japanese, they were more concerned with Russian encroachment towards Korea than in Manchuria. Other powers, such as France, Germany, and Great Britain, took advantage of the situation in China and gained port and trade concessions at the expense of the decaying Qing Empire. Tsingtao and Kiaochow was acquired by Germany, Kwang-Chou-Wan by France, and Weihaiwei by Great Britain.
Tensions between Russia and Japan would increase in the years after the First Sino-Japanese war. During the Boxer Rebellion an eight member international force was sent to suppress and quell the uprising; Russia sent troops into Manchuria as part of this force. After the suppression of the Boxers the Russian Government agreed to vacate the area. However by 1903 it had actually increased the number of its forces in Manchuria. Negotiations between the two nations (1901–1904) to establish mutual recognition of respective spheres of influence (Russia over Manchuria and Japan over Korea) were repeatedly and intentionally stalled by the Russians. They felt that they were strong and confident enough not to accept any compromise and believed Japan would not dare go to war against a European power. Russia also had intentions to use Manchuria as a springboard for further expansion of its interests in the Far East.
In 1902, Japan formed an alliance with Britain the terms of which stated that if Japan went to war in the Far East, and that a third power entered the fight against Japan, then Britain would come to the aid of the Japanese. This was a check to prevent either Germany or France from intervening militarily in any future war with Russia. British reasons for joining the alliance were also to check the spread of Russian expansion into the Pacific, thereby threatening British interests.
Increasing tensions between Japan and Russia as a result of Russia's unwillingness to enter into a compromise and the prospect of Korea falling under Russia's domination, therefore coming into conflict with and undermining Japan's interests, compelled Japan to take action. This would be the deciding factor and catalyst that would lead to the Russo-Japanese war of 1904–05.
War Reparations
After the war, according to the Chinese scholar, Jin Xide, the Qing government paid a total of 340,000,000 taels silver to Japan for both the reparations of war and war trophies, equivalent to (then) 510,000,000 Japanese yen, about 6.4 times the Japanese government revenue. Similarly, the Japanese scholar, Ryoko Iechika, calculated that the Qing government paid total $21,000,000 (about one third of revenue of the Qing government) in war reparations to Japan, or about 320,000,000 Japanese yen, equivalent to (then) two and half years of Japanese government revenue.
Chronicle of the war
Genesis of the war
1 June 1894 : The Tonghak Rebellion Army moves towards Seoul. The Korean government requests help from the Chinese government to suppress the rebellion force.
6 June 1894: The Chinese government informs the Japanese government under the obligation of Convention of Tientsin of its military operation. About 2,465 Chinese soldiers were transported to Korea within days.
8 June 1894: First of around 4,000 Japanese soldiers and 500 marines land at Chumlpo (Incheon) despite Korean and Chinese protests.
11 June 1894: End of Tonghak Rebellion.
13 June 1894: Japanese government telegraphs Commander of the Japanese forces in Korea, Otori Keisuke to remain in Korea for as long as possible despite the end of the rebellion.
16 June 1894: Japanese Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu meets with Wang Fengzao, Chinese ambassador to Japan, to discuss the future status of Korea. Wang states that Chinese government intends to pull out of Korea after the rebellion has been suppressed and expects Japan to do the same. However, China also appoints a resident to look after Chinese interests in Korea and to re-assert Korea’s traditional subservient status to China.
22 June 1894: Additional Japanese troops arrive in Korea.
3 July 1894: Otori proposes reforms of the Korean political system, which is rejected by the conservative pro-Chinese Korean government.
7 July 1894: Mediation between China and Japan arranged by British ambassador to China fails.
19 July 1894: Establishment of Japanese Joint Fleet, consisting of almost all vessels in the Imperial Japanese Navy, in preparation for upcoming war.
Early stage of the war on Korean soil
23 July 1894: Japanese troops enter Seoul, seize the Korean Emperor and establish a new pro-Japanese government, which terminates all Sino-Korean treaties and grants the Imperial Japanese Army the right to expel Chinese Beiyang Army troops from Korea.
25 July 1894: Naval Battle of Pungdo, offshore Asan, Korea.
29 July 1894: Battle of Seonghwan near Asan, Korea; Asan itself falls to Japan the following day.
1 Aug 1894: Formal Declaration of War.
15 September 1894: Battle of Pyongyang, northern Korea.
17 September 1894: Naval Battle of the Yalu River (1894) on border of Korea and Manchuria.
Sino-Japanese War on Chinese soil
24 October 1894: Battle of Jiuliangcheng. The Japanese First Army, under the command of Field Marshal Yamagata Aritomo invades Manchuria.
21 November 1894: Battle of Lushunkou followed by Port Arthur Massacre.
10 December 1894: Kaipeng (modern Gaixian, Liaoning Province, China) falls to the Japanese 1st Army under Lieutenant General Katsura Taro.
12 February 1895: Battle of Weihaiwei, Shandong, China.
5 March 1895: Battle of Yingkou, Liaoning Province, China.
26 March 1895: Japanese forces invade and occupy the Pescadores Islands off of Taiwan without casualties.
29 March 1895: Japanese forces under Admiral Motonori Kabayama land in northern Taiwan.
17 April 1895: China signs Treaty of Shimonoseki ending the First Sino-Japanese War, granting the complete independence of Korea, ceding the Liaodong peninsula, the islands of Taiwan (Formosa), and the Pescadores Islands to Japan and paying Japan a war indemnity of 200 million Kuping taels.
| Diplomacy of the Great Powers 1871-1913 |
| Great Powers |
| British Empire | German Empire | French Third Republic | Russian Empire | Austria-Hungary | Italy |
| Treaties and agreements |
| Treaty of Frankfurt | League of the Three Emperors | Treaty of Berlin German-Austrian Alliance | Triple Alliance | Reinsurance Treaty | Franco-Russian Alliance Anglo-Japanese Alliance | Anglo-Russian Entente | Entente Cordiale | Triple Entente |
| Events |
| Russo-Turkish War | Congress of Berlin | Scramble for Africa | Fleet Acts | The Great Game First Sino-Japanese War | Fashoda Incident | Pan-Slavism | Boxer Rebellion | Boer War | Russo-Japanese War First Moroccan Crisis | Dreadnought | Agadir Crisis | Bosnian crisis | Italo-Turkish War | Balkan wars |
References
1. Chamberlin, William Henry. Japan Over Asia, 1937, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston, 395 pp.
2. Colliers (Ed.), The Russo-Japanese War, 1904, P.F. Collier & Son, New York, 129 pp.
3. Kodansha Japan An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1993, Kodansha Press, Tokyo ISBN 4-06-205938-X
4. Lone, Stewart. Japan's First Modern War: Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894-1895, 1994, St. Martin's Press, New York, 222 pp.
5. Paine, S.C.M. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895: Perception, Power, and Primacy, 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, 412 pp.
6. Sedwick, F.R. (R.F.A.). The Russo-Japanese War, 1909, The Macmillan Company, NY, 192 pp.
7. Theiss, Frank. The Voyage of Forgotten Men, 1937, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1st Ed., Indianapolis & New York, 415 pp.
8. Warner, Dennis and Peggy. The Tide At Sunrise, 1974, Charterhouse, New York, 659 pp.
9. Urdang, Laurence/Flexner, Stuart, Berg. "The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition. Random House, New York, (1969).
10.Military Heritage did an editorial on the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 (Brooke C. Stoddard, Military Heritage, December 2001, Volume 3, No. 3, p.6).
