澳大利亞華人曆史研究狀況概略——英文學界

澳大利亞華人曆史研究狀況概略

——英文學界

自十九世紀一九五十年代初澳大利亞淘金熱始，中國人便大批湧入這塊土地，隨後在這裏生根發展，至今其華裔人口已占全國總人口的百分之五。盡管在十九世紀後半期華人在澳大利亞的經曆有聲有色，也驚心動魄，但有關華人曆史的研究則是到了二十世紀之後才得以開展。下麵就所能接觸閱讀到的英文相關資料，對學界所進行的澳大利亞華人曆史研究的概況作一簡要梳理。實際上對澳大利亞華人曆史的研究還有其它的西文著作，但因澳大利亞是英語國家，以英文為主的澳華曆史研究著作顯然就是主流。此外，由於相關研究的成果較多，難以全麵介紹和展開討論，本文隻將其分類並擇其要點，提供一個研究概略，以供參考。

根據學界對澳大利亞華人研究的開展及成果，大抵可以1990年代為界，分為兩個時期，即研究的開展與奠基期和大力發展期。

        1  1990年代之前

二十世紀初年，在澳大利亞悉尼著名華商梅光達(Quong Tart)去世七年後，其英裔妻子Margaret Tart於1911年編輯出版了The Life of Quong Tart(《梅光達的一生》)。[1]該書是以法文出版，篇幅不大，受到的關注度較小，而且也屬於這位著名華人在澳經商及成功的傳記，並非出於學人之手，但在1901年澳大利亞聯邦建立後“白澳政策”成為其國策的情況下，卻是最早記錄和反映十九世紀後半期華人在澳大利亞商業發展的著作，有相當的研究價值。此後，反映澳大利亞華人事務及曆史的研究和出版物難覓[2]，直到1950年代，澳大利亞華人的曆史及其它相關問題才開始受到關注。

1952年，學者Margaret Patricia Rendell完成了她的碩士論文，探討十九世紀華人在南澳及北領地發展的曆史；[3]六年後，Robert Tan對十九世紀昆士蘭限製華人的相關政策進行了初步探討；[4]1959年，Geoffrey Oddie也完成了其碩士論文，梳理1870-1890年代華人移民在維多利亞生計的艱難曆程。[5]這幾項研究，主要關注的是華人在來到澳大利亞之後從社會層麵和政府的立法方麵所麵臨的諸多問題和限製，但也涉及到早期來澳華人的商業活動，比如開設店鋪及從事種植業等情況。[6]雖然1950年代的這些研究數量有限，但卻都聚焦於十九世紀時期華人在澳大利亞不同的殖民地所麵臨的歧視問題，顯示出澳大利亞華人研究的起步的特點，是與十九世紀各殖民地不同的發展狀況而導致的對待華人移民政策之先後不同和差異相適應的。1970年，Katheryn Cronin對1870年代昆士蘭北部淘金熱後到中國人入境采金和經商而出現的“華人問題”並由此所導致的對華人敵視和限製政策的研究，也是上述學者研究範圍的延伸。[7]其後二十年裏，相關的華人研究涵括了澳大利亞的各個州，其所涉及的年份，也從十九世紀延伸到二十世紀上半期，並包括了當代華人社區的變遷，也同樣多多少少涉及到了華人商業在不同領域的發展和變化。[8]在這樣的基礎上，1968年，Arthur Huck出版了The Chinese in Australia(《澳大利亞華人》)一書，是首部全景性探討澳大利亞華人在這塊土地上之發展曆史的著作。[9]該書雖被視為澳大利亞華人問題研究的開拓之作，涉及曆史與現狀，華人的融入等等，但都是比較粗略的闡述，缺乏深度，對於華人商業的發展，基本上也未有涉及。[10]或許是因為澳大利亞各州的發展路徑有所不同，華人的湧入該地也處於不同時期，導致華人分布也有差異，如果沒有團隊協力合作，對澳大利亞華人的曆史發展及相關問題做全景式的深度探討，僅靠個人是難以勝任的。或許由於這個原因，此後，同類著作出現的很少。

在澳大利亞州際層次的華人研究已經展開的情況下，1970年代開始，學界開始了對華人在特定的區域和行業做有深度的研究。在1870年代之前，昆士蘭州北部地區尚處於未開發狀態，隻是恰於此時該地發現金礦而在短時期內吸引了數萬中國人前來淘金，幾年後因金礦枯竭他們再分散於該地之廣柔區域，其後果是直接促進了這個地區的開發和建設。作為澳大利亞主要的曆史學者，Geoffrey Bolton早在1963年便出版了一部研究昆士蘭北部地區開發與發展的通史[11]，書中涉及到華人來此先淘金後成為種植園主的曆史，便成為後來的學者開展這方麵研究的先聲。梅凱娣(Cathie May)的博士論文題目就定位於華人移民在凱恩斯(Cairns)地區的曆史，成為首位專門研究昆北地區華人曆史的學者。她在讀研期間，就於1974、1975及1979年分別發表了係列涉及凱恩斯地區華人社區發展、其營生及商業網絡以及華人與當地主流社會關係的論文，[12]1981年順利完成其學位論文[13]，並於1984年以《拓荒者，1870-1920：肯斯區華人奮鬥史》為名正式出版。[14]與梅凱娣同時期的學者Noreen Kirkman，則著重探討在1870年代昆士蘭北部地區白馬河(Palmer River)流域淘金熱時期大批華人的采金形式及由此而形成的一係列商鋪、旅館、食品店和肉店等商業模式。[15]與此相呼應的是，Christopher Anderson根據土著人Norman Mitchell的親身經曆，結合田野調查結果，也探討了昆士蘭北部淘金熱後到第二次世界大戰前華人與當地土著人的相互關係，其中包括了他們之間的商業聯係。[16]在其1986年完成的博士論文中，George Beattie著重探討的是當代移居布裏斯本的華人現狀，他們如何適應新的環境以及使自己盡快地融入當地，亦即一體化的問題，這其中自然也包括中國移民的就業模式及他們所經營生意的開展。[17]這一著重現狀的研究，與此前的著重探討的早期曆史有著極為密切的接續關係。

與此同時，在區域化研究成為學術探討新趨勢的推動下，對澳大利亞其它州相關地區的華人曆史包括個案研究也相繼出現。1981年，Jean Gittins將眼光放在早期來到維多利亞金礦區華工的生活，涉及到他們所從事的職業和經營的生意；[18]1982年，Kathryn Cronin則轉向探討殖民地時期維多利亞的華人與西裔之間也包括與西裔女性的關係，其中亦或多或少地涉及到華人商業的營生形態；[19]1985年出版的口述曆史學家Morag Loh的著作，也是闡述早期華人在維多利亞的生活及對社會的貢獻，對其商業經營及有影響力的商人予以介紹。[20]對於十九世紀後半期新南威爾士華人的研究，有Vivien Suit-Cheng Burrage在1984年完成的碩士論文，特別著重於悉尼的華人社區，包括不同群體所從事的商業活動。[21]與昆士蘭北部淘金熱的同時，1870年代在塔斯馬尼亞東北部地區出現的錫礦開采熱潮，同樣也吸引了眾多華人前往，並在餘後的十數年間成為該地礦區開發的主體；到十九世紀末，這裏的華人社區萎縮凋敝。Helen Vivian在1986年完成的博士論文中，挖掘該地區華人遺跡的同時，也展示了當時眾多華人錫礦主及其經營商業的經曆。[22]北領地在1863年劃歸南澳管轄，但該地為促進開發，許多措施與其它殖民地略有不同，比如進入該地的華人更大程度上是由政府引進，並在十九世紀末的20年時間裏其人口數都超過3000人[23]，在首府達爾文形成了較大的唐人街。1987年，Charles See-Kee對這裏早期華人的生存狀況及唐人街的商業經營作了介紹。[24]此外，這一時期，學界也對華人早期在澳大利亞經營的行業給予了關注。1974年，Andrew Markus將墨爾本的華人木行作為個案研究，探討其在十九世紀最後三十年裏的經營起伏和所遭遇到的歧視和困境；[25]在1987年於墨爾本舉行的第三屆澳大利亞美食研討會上，Jilian Stone發表了探討1870-1920年間華人菜農的經營以及對澳人蔬菜消費模式之影響的論文[26]，將華人研究的議題帶到了菜農及種植業這一領域。可以說，這一時期的華人研究開始興盛，也都涉及到了華人商業經濟活動，隻是沒有專門的華商研究，但已顯示出華人商業研究領域的範圍。

        2   1990年代之後

如果說1980年代之前與商業史相關的澳華研究屬於起步和開拓階段，那麽從1990年代開始就進入了大發展時期。概括地說，在前一個時期學者所開拓研究的基礎上，州際及地區華人曆史的研究則更為擴大及深入，是這一時期的首要特點。在與商業方麵相關的華人曆史研究方麵，雖仍有涉及西澳、南澳及塔斯馬尼亞這三個州及北領地的，但數量不多；[27]而其它的幾個州華人曆史受到的關注更高，相關的研究更多、更廣泛及深入，這也與華人的數量在澳洲東部的這幾個州較多也較為集中的曆史與現實相符合。對於新南威爾士州的華人研究，不僅有專注其早期發展的，即著重討論十九世紀末後半期的華人[28]，也有研究將華人在該地的曆史延續到第二次世界大戰之後進行探討的；[29]悉尼作為該州的首府，對該處的華僑研究便是重點[30]，其中以費雪莉(Shirley Fitzgerald)所撰的悉尼華僑史作為代表，其中對於二十世紀初年前後在當地的華商活動有相當且具份量的闡述；[31]與此同時，華人在其它的城鎮鄉村地區之研究也受到重視。[32]而對於維多利亞的華人曆史，學界把著眼點放在殖民地時期，既有州範圍的研究[33]，也有側重於各個淘金重鎮(如Ballarat和Bendigo)的深入探討[34]，都涉及到當時華人的商業經營活動。學界對於昆士蘭華人的研究，也基本上是與維多利亞相同的路徑，並在對昆士蘭北部地區華人曆史原有研究的基礎上，更為深入，更多地涉及到當時在該地區經商的企業及家族。[35]1995年，在梳理檔案和公私企業記載的基礎上，西澳學者Jan Ryans出版一部反映殖民時期西澳的華人史著作。該書披露華人來到西澳的方式與其它殖民地不同，是在1870年代作為契約勞工而來，以詳實的檔案記載揭示他們此後在這塊地方生存和經商所遭受到的種種不為人知的待遇。[36]而所有這些研究，都得益於自1980年代以來澳大利亞的考古學家和人類學家對這些早期華人淘金和經商遺址及遺物持續不懈的勘察和蒐尋之相關成果。[37]由是，作家Eric Rolls在1990年代先後出版的兩部著作，展現十九世紀後半期之前半段中國人在澳大利亞淘金的苦難曆史(亦即《旅居者》)[38]、及十九世紀末至二十世紀中後期“白澳政策”結束後到1990年代這段曆史時期華人打拚、定居和融入生活(亦即定居入籍成為《公民》)[39]，因沒有很好地吸收這些考古成果，隻是依賴於他所能收集到政府相關檔案記錄及一些遊記報導和傳媒新聞，對一些事件和人物缺乏考證，在學術上顯得創新不足[40]，算不上完全的曆史研究作品，但其著作全景式闡述華人在澳大利亞的淘金活動以及探討他們定居後的經濟生活及經商過程，對澳大利亞社會和經濟發展的貢獻，則為讀者了解當時的華人商業活動提供了寬闊的場景。

直接探討華人商業經濟活動的研究成果增加，是1990年代之後華人研究的另一大特點。首先涉及的是早期華人的一般商業活動。學者們除了對十九世紀後半期及二十世紀上半期的華人商業活動作為研究對象[41]，更多的則仍然是聚焦於各州及主要淘金地區，比如維多利亞的Ballarat[42]和Bendigo[43]及昆士蘭北部地區[44]，以及與中國的商業貿易往來[45]，包括金融服務，比如“金信”。[46]在探討澳大利亞華人與中國的商業聯係方麵，韋邁高(Michael Williams)選擇了從中國的角度來看待這一問題，即中國人如何從廣東珠江三角洲地區來到澳大利亞，他們在澳所取得的經濟成就如何通過香港中轉回饋故裏，造福僑鄉。[47]更進一步的則是，費約翰(John Fitzgerald)和郭美芬等學者也把注意力放到了二十世紀上半葉澳大利亞華商在中國的投資上。[48]同時，對早期出色的華商人物，比如悉尼的梅光達[49]，北領地的華人礦主Ping Que[50]，也挖掘資料，對其進行了個案研究，揭示他們對當地社會經濟發展及華洋文化交流方麵所做出的貢獻。

其次，自華人進入澳大利亞之後就一直從事的行業暨種植業，則是最受關注的研究領域。在澳大利亞的水稻等農作物的種植方麵，早期的在澳中國人貢獻巨大；[51]而由中國人經營和種植的蔬菜和水果，構成了澳大利亞華人社區得以在這塊土地生存發展的最主要的一個行業。自1980年代以來，學界對這個領域的研究也比較多，新南威爾士州受到的關注最多，其集大成者是Joanna Boileau。她的專著Chinese market gardening in Australia and New Zealand: Gardens of prosperity (《澳大利亞和新西蘭的華農：繁盛的蔬果種植業》)一書，通過梳理澳、新兩國的檔案材料和考古資料，以新南威爾士的華人菜農研究為基礎，進而擴展至澳大利亞全境及新西蘭，對華人在蔬果種植業的資本和人力投入、技術的使用、管理銷售等相關問題予以探討，彰顯了華農在這一領域裏對當地社會發展所做出的貢獻。[52]對於悉尼[53]、五龍崗地區[54]、以及新南威爾士的其它地方的華人蔬果種植業[55]，相關的學者也都分別給予了關注。對於昆士蘭華人的菜農研究，北部地區仍然是學者關注的重點。[56]同時，也有學者對西澳的華人菜農曆史進行了研究。[57]作為商業活動的流通和最終結果，果蔬生產屬於產業鏈的上遊環節，其中下遊環節便是銷售和消費，因而眾多華人在主要城市及港口經營的果欄和雜貨店便承擔了銷售這些產品的責任，也是這些中小華商得以在這裏生存和發展的基礎。對此，相關學者給予了極高的重視。比如，柯素非(Sophie Couchman)對早期墨爾本唐人街銷售香蕉店鋪的研究[58]，Lisa Law對早期凱恩斯菜市場華人果蔬攤檔的研究，[59]郭美芬對十九世紀末二十世紀初悉尼幾家華人果欄及商號的研究；[60]而Janis Wilton和Sophie Loy-Wilson兩位學者則把眼光放在了新南威爾士廣柔鄉鎮的華人商鋪上，她們以一係列的研究揭示華人商業網絡的開設起著維係地區日常生活所需甚至文化交流的功能。[61]

上述澳大利亞華人曆史包括華商曆史研究的深入，也是與這一時期華人口述曆史的開展、家史(包括家族企業經營史)的整理及有關華人與歐裔及土著人的混合婚姻及多族裔關係研究的展開密切相關。從1980年代開始，Morag Loh在維多利亞州陸續進行的華人口述曆史記錄[62]，到Janis Wilton等學者在新南威爾士州北部地區開展的華人家庭口述史[63]，以及Diana Giese在1995年完成的反映北領地華人曆史的口述記錄Beyond Chinatown: changing perspectives on the Top End Chinese experience(《超越唐人街》)一書的出版[64]，這些記錄都涉及到此前華人家族的經商情況及現狀。由此而推動的家史整理及個人回憶錄[65]，以及據此而產生的學術成果[66]，則為了解這些自十九世紀以來到第二次世界大戰結束前後所建立的華商企業及他們的商業活動提供了第一手的資料。而開展對留有曆史記載及相關痕跡的華人與西裔及華人與土著之間結合及相互關係之研究，除了旨在揭示“白澳政策”下華人之融入主流及保持中華文化認同方麵的艱難之外，也在很大程度上披露了華人的商務活動是如何與其他族裔互動的，亦即主動式的或被動式的融入當地經濟範疇，提供了許多不為人知的華人商務內情。[67]

再次，涉及早期華人參與的其它商業領域活動的專項研究成果也陸續出現。例如，郭美芬對悉尼北京大酒樓的研究[68]，Peter Gibson等人對早期華人木行及華商參與羊毛加工業的研究[69]，Brendan Fry涉及的華人洗衣業的研究[70]，相關學者對華人參與維多利亞、新南威爾士、南澳和北領地捕魚業的研究[71]，以及Stephen Gapps對早期在昆士蘭北部及北領地製作中國舢板帆船的研究。[72]這些專項研究的拓展，開闊了我們對華人在澳大利亞所涉及和經營企業的認知。

1973年澳大利亞正式廢除具種族歧視色彩的“白澳政策”，製定新的移民政策，接納更多不同民族和種族，收益最大者主要是亞洲移民。據此，自1980年代開始，越來越多的華人以技術、投資等不同移民類別的身份進入這個國家，極大地改變了澳大利亞華人社區商業模式。學界感受到了這種變化，對華人商業活動的現狀研究隨之增加，是新時期華商研究的另一大特征。這些研究體現在三個方麵：其一，探討華人移民的經濟形態及所涉及的行業；[73]其二，聚焦來自不同地方亦即不同文化背景之華人移民在澳經營的形式及遭遇的問題[74]，包括中小型企業[75]，以及他們如何管理原居地與移居地生意的形態和成功經驗；[76]其三，關注華人投資移民在澳經營規模及其發展，[77]尤其是移民政策和文化背景對他們在澳經營的影響，[78]也包括他們在一些特定行業的投資經曆與問題。[79]

粟明鮮

Dec 2022

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[1] Margaret Tart, The Life of Quong Tart, or, How A Foreigner Succeeded in A British Community, W. M. Maclardy, “Ben Franklin” Printing Works, 1911. 當時，該書是以法文出版。90年後，在澳大利亞新南威爾士州聯邦世紀委員會(New South Wales Centenary of Federation Committee)的資助下，悉尼大學(University of Sydney)在2001年將其譯為英文，網上發行。鏈接：http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/fed/

[2] 1931年有學者在維多利亞曆史學報上發表了一篇探討華人在該州曆史的論文，但對華人經商情況未有給予關注。見：Charles Daley, “The Chinese in Victoria,” Victorian Historical Magazine 14.1 (1931), pp. 23-34.

[3] Rendell, Margaret Patricia. The Chinese in South Australia and the Northern Territory in the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Social, Economic and Legislative Attitudes Adopted Towards the Chinese in the Colony. Diss. University of Adelaide, 1952.

[4] Tan, Robert. The Chinese question in Queensland during the nineteenth century: a brief history of racial conflict. Diss. University of Queensland, 1958.

[5] Oddie, Geoffrey A. The Chinese in Victoria, 1870-1890. Diss. University of Melbourne, 1959.

[6] 例如Oddie根據其碩士論文而寫的反映同時期華人低層與華商問題的研究，在1961年的《澳大利亞曆史研究》上發表。見Oddie, Geoffrey. “The lower class Chinese and the merchant elite in Victoria, 1870–1890.” Australian Historical Studies 10.37 (1961): 65-70.

[7] Cronin, Kathryn. The Chinese question in Queensland in the nineteenth century: a study in racial interaction, B.A.(Hons.), The University of Queensland, 1970.

[8] 這些研究成果主要是不同大學的學位論文及相關研究論文。詳見：Easteal, Barbara Vivienne. The Chinese in Tasmania, 1870-1900. Diss. University of Tasmania, 1965; Yong, Ching Fatt. The Chinese in New South Wales and Victoria, 1901-1921, with Special Reference to Sydney and Melbourne. Diss. The Australian National University (Australia), 1966 (作者楊進發將該博士論文修改後在1977年出版，見Yong, Ching Fatt. The new gold mountain: the Chinese in Australia, 1901-1921. Richmond, Australia: Raphael Arts, 1977. 該書的中譯本於1988年出版。見楊進發著：《新金山：澳大利亞華人，1901-1921》姚楠、陳立貴譯，上海譯文出版社，1988年版); Inglis, Christine Brenda. The Darwin Chinese: A Study of Assimilation. The Australian National University, 1967; Wang, Sing-Wu. The Organization of Chinese Emigration, 1848-1888, with Special Reference to Chinese Emigration to Australia. Diss. Australian National University, 1969 (王省吾的這篇碩士論文經修改後於1978年出版。見Wang, Sing-wu. The organization of Chinese emigration, 1848-1888: with special reference to Chinese emigration to Australia. No. 25. Chinese Materials Center, 1978); Choi, Ching Yan. Chinese Migration and Settlement in Australia, with Special Reference to the Chinese in Melbourne. Diss. The Australian National University, 1971 (該博士論文於1975年出版。見Choi, Ching Yan, and Cheng-jen Ts?ai. Chinese migration and settlement in Australia. Sydney University Press, 1975); Atkinson, Anne. Chinese labour and capital in Western Australia, 1847-1947. Diss. Murdoch University, 1991。

[9] Huck, Arthur. The Chinese in Australia. Longmans, 1968.

[10] Tigner, James L. “Book review: The Chinese in Australia”. The International Migration Review (1969), pp. 82-84.

[11] Bolton, Geoffrey Curgenven. A thousand miles away: a history of North Queensland to 1920. Australian National University Press, 1970. 這是該書的第二版，1963年的第一版也由澳大利亞國立大學出版社出版。

[12] May, Cathie. “The Chinese community in far north Queensland.” in B. J. Dalton (ed.). Lectures on North Queensland History. James Cook University, 1974: 121-138; May, Cathie. “Chinese and Europeans in North Queensland: a study in race relations.” in B. J. Dalton (ed.). Lectures on North Queensland History: Second Series. James Cook University, 1975: 135-146; May, Cathie. “Chinese-European Relations in Cairns during the Eighteen Eighties.” in B. J. Dalton (ed.). Lectures on North Queensland History: Third Series. James Cook University, 1978: 157-168; May, Cathie. “The Chinese in Cairns district, 1876-1920”. in Henry Reynolds (ed.). Race Relations in North Queensland. James Cook University, 1978: 225-236.

[13] May, Catherine Rosemary. The Chinese in Cairns and district 1876-1920. Diss. University of Queensland, General Photographic Unit, 1981.

[14] May, Catherine Rosemary. Topsawyers, the Chinese in Cairns 1870-1920. Townsville: History Dept., James Cook University, 1984. 說明：該中文書名及著者中文名出現在這本書封麵上。

[15] Kirkman, Noreen. “From minority to majority: an account of the Chinese influx to the Palmer River goldfield 1873-1876.” in Henry Reynolds (ed.). Race Relations in North Queensland. James Cook University, 1978: 237-254. Kirkman對白馬河金礦區華人社區的探討，是其讀博期間的研究方向，並在1984年完成了她的博士論文。見Kirkman, Noreen Suzanne. The Palmer goldfield, 1873-1883. Diss. James Cook University of North Queensland, 1984.

[16] Anderson, Christopher, and Norman Mitchell. “Kubara: a Kuku-Yalanji view of the Chinese in north Queensland.” Aboriginal History, 1981, Vol.5(1), pp.20-37。

[17] Beattie, George, The settlement and integration of the Chinese in Brisbane. Diss. The University of Queensland, School of Languages and Comparative Cultural Studies, 1986. 在完成其博士論文之前一年，該作者就與其他學者合作，發表了一篇與其選題相關的論文。見Crissman, Lawrence W.; Beattie, George; Selby, James, “The Segmentation and Integration of the Chinese in Brisbane, Australia.” Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 1 July 1985, Vol.16(2), pp.181-203.

[18] Gittins, Jean, The diggers from China: the story of Chinese on the goldfields. Melbourne; New York: Quartet Books. 1981.

[19] Cronin, Kathryn. Colonial casualties: Chinese in early Victoria. Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press; Beaverton, Or.: International Scholarly Book Services, 1982. 亦見：王孝詢：“研究澳洲華人史的幾部重要著作”，《華僑華人曆史研究》1997年第2期，第67-70頁。

[20] Loh, Morag, and Joan Grant. Sojourners and Settlers: Chinese in Victoria 1848-1985. Victorian Government China Advisory Committee, 1985.

[21] Burrage, Vivien Suit-Cheng. The Chinese Community, Sydney, 1870-1901. Diss. Macquarie University, Sydney, 1974.

[22] Vivian, Helen. Tasmania's Chinese heritage: an historical record of Chinese sites in North East Tasmania. Diss. University of Tasmania, 1986.

[23] 1301.0 - Year Book Australia, 1925. 引自澳大利亞聯邦統計局在線資料：https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/featurearticlesbytitle/4A6A63F3D85F7770CA2569DE00200137?OpenDocument.

[24] Charles See-Kee, Chinese contribution to early Darwin, Darwin: Northern Territory Library Service, 1987.

[25] Markus, Andrew. “Divided We Fall: The Chinese and the Melbourne Furniture Trade Union, 1870-1900.” Labour History 26 (1974): 1-10.

[26] Stone, Jillian M. “Chinese market gardeners and their impact on vegetable consumption patterns in Australia, 1870-1920’.” Symposium of Australian Gastronomy Proceedings. 1987.

[27] 與西澳華人研究相關的論著，見Atkinson, Anne. "Placing restrictions upon them: controlling'free'Chinese immigrants and capital in Western Australia." Studies in Western Australian History 16 (1995): 69-88; Cai, Tian Ming. Astride two worlds: The Chinese response to changing citizenship in Western Australia (1901-1973). MA thesis, Edith Cowan University, 1999.與南澳華人早期及戰前曆史和現狀相關的研究有：Jeffery, Bill, and Sarah Kenderdine. “Chinese emigration to South Australia aboard foreign-owned vessels: The Guichen Bay shipwrecks of 1857.” Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, The 15.1 (1991): 31-36; Young, Janette, Janet McIntyre, and Murray Drummond. “Overlapping identities in pre-WWII South Australia: lessons for 21st Century Australia.” People and Place 15.3 (2007): 42-52; Pan, Qiuping. “Ethnic Identity and Immigrant Organizations: The Deployment of Ethnicity by Chinese in South Australia.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 14.1 (2018): 22-53.與塔斯馬尼亞的華人曆史及商業發展相關的研究，基本上都集中在其東北部，這與早期華人糜集於此開采錫礦和經商相關。見Gaughwin, Denise. “Chinese settlement sites in north-east Tasmania.” Histories of the Chinese in Australasia and the South Pacific (1995): 230-248; Scott, Joan. Celestial Sojourn: The Chinese on the Tinfields of North East Tasmania. St. Helens History Room Assoc., 1997; Alcock, Jacquelyn. “The Middle People”, A History of the Launceston Chinese Community. Diss. University of Tasmania, 1998. 有關北領地的研究，見Stone, Shane, and Roger Steele. “Progress of the Chinese community of the Northern Territory.” Northern Perspective 18.1 (1995): 28-35; McCarthy, Justin. “Tales of the Empire City: Chinese miners in the Pine Creek region, Northern Territory, 1872-1915.” Histories of the Chinese in Australasia and the South Pacific (1995): 191-202.

[28] 例如：Darnell, Maxine Lorraine, Christopher Lloyd, and Graydon Henning. “The Chinese labour trade to New South Wales 1783-1853: An exposition of motives and outcomes.” (1998); Williams, Michael. Chinese Settlement in NSW: a thematic history. NSW Heritage Office, 1999; Mcgowan, Barry. “The Economics and Organisation of Chinese Mining in Colonial Australia”. Australian Economic History Review, 2005, Vol.45(2), pp.119-138.

[29] Wilton, Janis. “Chinese whispers in New South Wales. (how Chinese immigrants to Australia expanded through sponsorship and economic activity).” History Today, Nov, 1997, Vol.47(11), p.45(7); Tan, Carole. “Golden Threads: The Chinese in Regional New South Wales 1850–1950.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 3.2 (2007): 267-268; McGowan, Barry. “Shoulder yokes and moon cakes: The Chinese diaspora in the Riverina district of New South Wales, Australia, 1850 to the present.” Historic Environment 24.1 (2012): 26-34.

[30] 如：Burnley, Ian H. “Evolution of Chinese settlement geographies in Sydney, Australia.” Urban Geography 23.4 (2002): 365-387; Kuo, Mei-fen. “The making of a diasporic identity: the case of the Sydney Chinese commercial elite, 1890s-1900s.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 5.2 (2009): 336-363.

[31] Fitzgerald, Shirley. Red Tape Gold Scissors: The Story of Sydney's Chinese. Halstead, 2008. 該書由張威譯成中文，在悉尼出版。見：雪莉·費茲傑爾德著：《悉尼華僑史》，張威譯，悉尼：澳大利亞悉尼市政府出版社，1998年。

[32] 如：McGowan, Barry, and Tana Li. “An Example of Usury Within the Chinese Community: an Account from Wagga Wagga, 1923-1927.” (2013); Gibson, Peter Charles. “Dark dragon ridge: Chinese people in Wollongong, 1901-39.” (2014); Kwok, J. “Chinese mining on the Turon: From beginning to end”. Journal of Australasian mining history, 17(2019), 75-95.

[33] 例如：Chou, Bon-Wai. The Chinese in Victoria: a longterm survey. Diss., University of Melbourne, 1993.

[34] 參見Reeves, Keir. “A songster, a sketcher and the Chinese on central Victoria's Mount Alexander diggings: case studies in cultural complexity during the second half of the nineteenth century.” Journal of Australian Colonial History 6.2004 (2004): 175-192; Trevarthen, Cora. “After the gold is gone: Chinese Communities in Northeast Victoria, 1861-1914.” Journal of Chinese Australia 2 (2006); Lovejoy, Valerie. “Chinese in Late Nineteenth-Century Bendigo: Their local and translocal lives in ‘this strangers’ country’.” Australian Historical Studies 42.1 (2011): 45-61.

[35] Fitzgerald, Ross. “The Chinese in Queensland.” Quadrant 34.5 (1990): 34-39; Kirkman, Noreen. “From minority to majority: Chinese on the Palmer River gold-field, 1873-1876.” James Cook University, 1993. 243-257; Rains, K. “The overseas Chinese and Cooktown: An historical archaeological study of isolation.” (2002): 45-59; Wong, Kevin Hoy. “Thursday Island en route to citizenship and the Queensland goldfields: Chinese aliens and naturalised British subjects, 1879-1903.” Journal of Australian Colonial History 6.2004 (2004): 159-174.

[36] Ryan, Jan. Ancestors: Chinese in Colonial Australia. Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 1995.

[37] 例如，Jack, Ian, Kate Holmes, and Ruth Kerr. “Ah Toy's garden: a Chinese market-garden on the Palmer River goldfield, North Queensland.” The Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology (1984): 51-58; Comber, Jillian. “The Palmer Goldfield.” Australasian Historical Archaeology (1995): 41-48; Grimwade, Gordon, and Peter Reynolds. “Report on the Atherton Chinatown, North Queensland. I.. Unpublished report.” Material Culture Unit, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld (1987); Grimwade, Gordon. Rusty's Markets Re-Development Site Archaeological Excavation Report. 2004.

[38] Rolls, Eric C (Eric Charles). Sojourners: the epic story of China's centuries-old relationship with Australia: flowers and the wide sea. St. Lucia, Qld.: University of Queensland Press, 1992. 該書中譯本見艾瑞克·羅斯著：《澳大利亞華人史(1888-1995)》，張威譯，廣州：中山大學出版社，2009年。

[39] Rolls, Eric C (Eric Charles). Citizens: continuing the epic story of China's centuries-old relationship with Australia ...: flowers and the wide sea. St Lucia, Qld.: University of Queensland Press, 1996. 該書中譯本見艾瑞克·羅斯著：《澳大利亞華人史(1800-1888)》，張威譯，廣州：中山大學出版社，2017年。

[40] Moore, Clive. “Sojourners: Flowers and the Wide Sea. The Epic Story of China's Centuries-Old Relationship with Australia.” Labour History, No.66 (May 1994): 172-173.

[41] 具代表性的研究有：Ryan, Jan. “The business of Chinese coolie immigration.-In special issue: Private Enterprise, Government and Society.” Studies in Western Australian History 13 (1992): 24-35; Couchman, Sophie; Fitzgerald, John; Macgregor, Paul; Kwok, Jen, “After the rush: regulation, participation and Chinese communities in Australia 1860-1940”. Australian journal of politics and history, Vol.52(1), pp.136-137 (Mar 2006); Austin, Denise A. “Chinese Business Christians in Early Twentieth Century Australia.” “Kingdom-Minded” People. Brill, 2011. 185-212; Bowen, Alister. “The merchants: Chinese social organisation in colonial Australia.” Australian Historical Studies 42.1 (2011): 25-44; Kuo, Mei-fen. “Enterprising Chinese Australians in the early 20th century: capital, sociability, and diaspora nationalism.” (2018).

[42] Kyi, Anna. “Unravelling the mystery of the Woah Hawp Canton Quartz Mining Company, Ballarat.” Journal of Australian Colonial History 6.2004 (2004): 59-78.

[43] Rasmussen, Amanda. “Networks and negotiations: Bendigo's Chinese and the Easter Fair.” Journal of Australian Colonial History 6.2004 (2004): 79-92.

[44] Law, Lisa, “The ghosts of White Australia: Excavating the past(s) of Rusty's Market in tropical Cairns.” Continuum, 01 October 2011, Vol.25(5), p.669-681; Rains, Kevin. “Doing Business: Chinese and European Socioeconomic Relations in Early Cooktown.” International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 2013, Vol.17(3), pp.520-545; Rains, Kevin. “Webs of Association: Examining the Overseas Chinese Social Landscape of Early Cooktown.” Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies 6 (2013).

[45] Macgregor, Paul. “Lowe Kong Meng and Chinese engagement in the international trade of Colonial Victoria.” Provenance 11 (2012): 26-43; Guoth, Nicholas Dennis. Beyond a cup of tea: Trade relationships between colonial Australia and China, 1860-1880. Diss. Australian National University, 2017.

[46] Kuo, Mei-fen. “Jinxin: the remittance trade and enterprising Chinese Australians, 1850–1916.” in Benton, Gregor, Hong Liu and Huimei Zhang eds. The Qiaopi trade and transnational networks in the Chinese diaspora. New York: Routledge, 2018: 160-178.

[47] Williams, Michael. “In the Tang Mountains we have a big house,” East Asian History, vol 25/26 (2003), pp 85–112; Williams, Michael. “Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta qiaoxiang,” Modern Asian Studies, vol 38, no 2(2004) , pp 257–282; Williams, Michael. Returning Home with Glory: Chinese Villagers Around the Pacific, 1849 to 1949. Hong Kong University Press, 2018.

[48] Fitzgerald, John, and Mei-fen Kuo. “Diaspora Charity and Welfare Sovereignty in the Chinese Republic: Shanghai Charity Innovator William Yinson Lee (Li Yuanxin, 1884–1965).” Twentieth-Century China 42.1 (2017): 72-96; Loy-Wilson, Sophie. Australians in Shanghai: Race, rights and nation in treaty port China. Routledge, 2017.

[49] Couchman, Sophie, “‘Then in the Distance Quong Tart Did We See’: Quong Tart, Celebrity and Photography.” Journal of Australian Colonial History, 2006, Vol.8, p.159-182; McGowan, Barry. “The Making of a Legend: Quong Tart on the Braidwood Goldfields.” Journal of Australian Colonial History, 2007, Vol.9, p.69-98.

[50] Jones, Timothy G. “Ping Que, mining magnate of the Northern Territory 1854-1886.” Journal of Northern Territory History 15 (2004): 107-116.

[51] Johnson, Conor. “The Chinese Contribution to Agriculture in the Cairns District from 1870 to 1920.” James Cook University, HI3284; Woods, Michael. “Rural cosmopolitanism at the frontier? Chinese farmers and community relations in northern Queensland, c. 1890–1920.” Australian Geographer 49.1 (2018): 107-131; Frost, Warwick. “Migrants and Technological Transfer: Chinese Farming in Australia, 1850–1920.” Australian Economic History Review, 2002, Vol.42(2), pp.113-131.與此同時，華人在澳大利亞早期煙草業種植方麵的貢獻，也受到了學者的關注。見：Jacqueline Verrocchio, “Historical tobacco kilns in north-east Victoria”, Historical Environment 14.1 (1998), pp.29-38.

[52] Boileau, Joanna. Chinese market gardening in Australia and New Zealand: Gardens of prosperity. Springer, 2017.

[53] Morris, Colleen. “Chinese market gardens in Sydney.” Australian Garden History 12.5 (2001): 5-8.

[54] Gibson, Peter. “The Market Gardens of Dark Dragon Ridge, New South Wales, Australia, 1876–1930.” Australian Economic History Review 60.3 (2020): 372-393.

[55] McGowan, Barry. “Chinese market gardens in southern and western New South Wales.” Australian Humanities Review 36 (2005): 1-15; Stanin, Zvonkica. “From Li Chun to Yong Kit: a market garden on the Loddon, 1851- 1912. [Paper in special issue: Active Voices, Hidden Histories: The Chinese in Colonial Australia.].” Journal of Australian Colonial History 6 (2004): 14-34; Henning, Rachel. “‘Vegerable Johns’: Wong Gee and the forgotten Chinese market gardeners of Illawarra.” https://www.academia.edu/download/64985373/VEG_FINAL.pdf

[56] Robb, Sandi. "'Wanted-Chinaman gardener; first class wages-references required'." Australian Garden History 32.3 (2021): 13-16; Rains, Kevin. “Behind the wattle fence: the Chinese market gardeners of early Cooktown.” Rediscovered past: China in northern Australia. Melbourne: Chinese Heritage in Northern Australia Inc (2009): 21-30.

[57] Richards, Oline. “Chinese market gardening: a Western Australian postscript.” Australian Garden History 13.1 (2001): 19-21.

[58] Couchman, Sophie. “The banana trade: Its importance to Melbourne’s Chinese and Little Bourke Street, 1880s–1930s’.” Histories of the Chinese in Australasia and the South Pacific (1995): 29-45.

[59] Law, Lisa, “The ghosts of White Australia: Excavating the past(s) of Rusty's Market in tropical Cairns.” Continuum, 01 October 2011, Vol.25(5), p.669-681.

[60] Kuo, Mei-Fen. “Enterprising Chinese Australians and rethinking remittance network: the reflection of Wing Sang and Co. 1890-1916.” (2015); Kuo, Mei-fen. “Chinese rural entrepreneurs in the White Australia era: the case of Harry Fay of Hong Yuen & Co.” (2018).

[61] 例如，Wilton, Janis. Chinese voices, Australian lives: Oral history and the Chinese contribution to Glen Innes, Inverell, Tenterfield and surrounding districts during the first half of the twentieth century. Diss., University of New England, 1996; Wilton, Janis. “Chinese stores in rural Australia.” Asian Department Stores (1998): 90-113; Wilton, Janis. Helen Andreoni, and Anne-Katrin Eckermann. “Chinese voices, Australian lives: Oral history and the Chinese contribution to Glen Innes, Inverell, Tenterfield and surrounding districts during the first half of the twentieth century.” (1997); Wilton, Janis. Golden Threads: The Chinese in Regional New South Wales 1850-1950. New England Regional Art Museum in association with Power House Publishing, 2004; Loy-Wilson, Sophie. “Peanuts and Publicists: ‘Letting Australian Friends Know the Chinese Side of the Story’ in Interwar Sydney.” History Australia 6.1 (2009): 06.1-06.20; Loy-Wilson, Sophie. “Rural geographies and Chinese empires: Chinese shopkeepers and shop-life in Australia.” Australian Historical Studies 45.3 (2014): 407-424; Loy-Wilson, Sophie. “The gospel of enthusiasm: salesmanship, religion and colonialism in Australian department stores in the 1920s and 1930s.” Journal of Contemporary History 51.1 (2016): 91-123.

[62] Loh, Morag. “‘You're my diamond, mum!’: Some thoughts on women married to immigrants from China in Victoria from the 1850s to the 1920s.” Oral History Association of Australia Journal, The 6 (1984): 3-10; Loh, Morag. “A County practice: Thomas Chong, herbalist of Bairnsdale; his place, his practice, his peers.” Histories of the Chinese in Australasia and the South Pacific (1993): 15-25.

[63] Wilton, Janis. “Chinese whispers in New South Wales. (how Chinese immigrants to Australia expanded through sponsorship and economic activity).” History Today, Nov, 1997, Vol.47(11), p.45(7); Wilton, Janis. Helen Andreoni, and Anne-Katrin Eckermann. “Chinese voices, Australian lives: Oral history and the Chinese contribution to Glen Innes, Inverell, Tenterfield and surrounding districts during the first half of the twentieth century.” (1997).

[64] Giese, Diana. Beyond Chinatown: changing perspectives on the Top End Chinese experience. National Library Australia, 1995; Young, Faye M. “In pursuit of the dragon: researching Chinese Australian family history.” Descent 34.3 (2004): 120-128.

[65] 例如，Hunt, Stanley. From Shekki to Sydney: An Autobiography. Wild Peony/University of Hawaii Press, 2009; Kwok, Juanita. The Chinese in Bathurst: Recovering Forgotten Histories. Diss., Charles Sturt University, 2019; Chong, Carol. “The Chong family history at Mungana.” (2016): 51-65; Faulkner, Claire Veronica. Conquest: an inside story-the integration of a colonial Chinese - Australian family cluster. Ayr, Queensland, Australia: Claire Veronica Faulkner, January 2013.

[66] Dimond, Glenys. Sweet & sour: experiences of Chinese families in the Northern Territory. Darwin, Northern Territory: Museum & Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, 1996; Macgregor, Paul. “Dreams of Jade and Gold: Chinese Families in Australia’s History.” Australian Family: Images and Essays (1998): 25-36; Hales, Dinah. “Lost histories: Chinese-European families of Central Western New South Wales, 1850-80.” Journal of Australian Colonial History, Vol. 6, 2004: 93-112; Wu, Quianlong and Mobo Gao. “Decoding historical scripts in Chinese: The Tasmanian Chungs from Xinhui.” Journal of Chinese Australia, Issue 2 (2006); Bagnall, Kate. “Landscapes of memory and forgetting: Indigo and Shek Quey Lee.” (2013): 7; Dunk, Melissa. “Overseas Chinese Ceramics in Nineteenth Century Australia: the Dennis O’Hoy Collection.” An Angel by the Water: Essays in Honour of Dennis Reginald O’Hoy. Kennington Victoria Holland House, 2015; Couchman, Sophie, and Kate Bagnall. “Memory and meaning in the search for Chinese Australian families.” Remembering Migration. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019. 331-346.

[67] 參見：Karlsen, Christine Robyn. Cultural Exclusion and Interaction: An Historical Study of the Aboriginal, Anglo-Australian, Chinese and Greek Groups in Darwin, Northern Territory of Australia, 1880-1980. Charles Darwin University (Australia), 1996; Lancashire, Rod. “European-Chinese Economic Interaction in a Pre-Federation Rural Australian Setting.” Rural Society, 01 January 2000, Vol.10(2), p.229-241; Ramsay, G. M. “Contentious connections: Removals, legislation and Indigenous-Chinese contacts.” M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 4.1 (2001): 1-6; Bagnall, Kate. “Across the threshold: White women and Chinese hawkers in the white colonial imaginary.” Hecate 28.2 (2002): 9-32; Robb, Sandi. “Myths, lies and invisible lives: European women and Chinese men in North Queensland 1870-1900.” Lilith: A Feminist History Journal 12 (2003): 95-109.

[68] Kuo, Mei-fen. “The Pekin Café in Sydney: consuming nationality and enterprising Chinese Australians in the early twentieth century.” (2018).

[69] Gibson, Peter. “Australia's Bankrupt Chinese Furniture Manufacturers, 1880–1930.” Australian Economic History Review 58.1 (2018): 87-107; Gibson, Peter. “Voices of Sydney's Chinese furniture factory workers, 1890-1920.” Labour History 112 (2017): 99-117; Gibson, Peter, and Simon Ville. “Australian wool and Chinese industrialization, 1901-41.” (2019): 265-287.

[70] Fry, Brendan. “A dangerous incline: the Victorian Laundry Association and the Chinese Employment Bills of 1903-1907.” (2013).

[71] Bentz, Linda. “Archaeology of the Chinese fishing industry in colonial Victoria.” Archaeology in Oceania 48.3 (2013): 168-169; Bowen, Alister M. “Colonial Chinese fish curing activities in Victoria, Australia.” Artefact: the Journal of the Archaeological and Anthropological Society of Victoria, The 29.2006 (2006): 4-13; Jolly, Bridget. “Early commercial fishing on Kangaroo Island: Netting, curing and canning, and Chinese fishermen's role in the industry.” Journal of the Historical Society of South Australia 45 (2017): 51-66; Chen, Li, and John Charles Ryan. “Abalone in Diasporic Chinese Culture: The Transformation of Biocultural Traditions through Engagement with the Western Australian Environment.” Heritage 1.1 (2018): 122-141.

[72] Gapps, Stephen. “Made in Australia: Chinese junks and sampans 1870-1910.” Signals 118 (2017): 30-33.

[73] 例如：Kee, Poo-Kong. Chinese Immigrants in Australia: Construction of a Socio-economic Profile. Institute of Applied Economics and Social Research, 1988; Collins, Jock. “Chinese entrepreneurs. The Chinese Diaspora in Australia.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research 8.1-2 (2002): 113-133; Gao, Jia. “Riding on the waves of transformation in the Asia-Pacific: Chinese migration to Australia since the late 1980s.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48.4 (2022): 933-950..

[74] 參見：Ip, David, Chung‐tong Wu, and Christine Inglis. “Settlement experiences of Taiwanese immigrants in Australia.” Asian Studies Review 22.1 (1998): 79-97; Ip, David. “A decade of Taiwanese migrant settlement in Australia: Comparisons with mainland Chinese and Hong Kong settlers.” Journal of Population Studies 23.1 (2001): 13-145; Chiang, Lan‐hung Nora. “The dynamics of self‐employment and ethnic business ownership among Taiwanese in Australia.” International Migration 42.2 (2004): 153-173; Lever‐Tracy, Constance, and David Ip. “Diversification and Extensible Networks: The Strategies of Chinese Businesses in Australia1.” International Migration 43.3 (2005): 73-97; Lund, Daniel, Woods, Peter, Hibbins, Raymond, Barker, Michelle. “Young Chinese Entrepreneurs in Australia: Migrant Networks in a New Land”. International Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities and Nations, 2006; Deng, Ling. “The aspirations of Chinese business migrants in Australia: Barriers, opportunities and implications for government policy development.” Migration Australia 2 (2012): 52-57.

[75] Collins, Jock, and Angeline Low. “Asian female immigrant entrepreneurs in small and medium-sized businesses in Australia.” Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 22.1 (2010): 97-111; Selvarajah, Christopher, and Eryadi K. Masli. “Ethnic entrepreneurial business cluster development: Chinatowns in Melbourne.” Journal of Asia Business Studies (2011); Liu, Shuang. “Acting Australian and being Chinese: Integration of ethnic Chinese business people.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35.4 (2011): 406-415.

[76] Giese, Diana. Astronauts, lost souls & dragons: voices of today's Chinese Australians. St Lucia, Qld.: University of Queensland Press, 1997; Ye, Jing, Melissa Parris, and Dianne Waddell. “The influence of cultural attributes on intergenerational succession in the Chinese-Australian family business.” ANZAM 2008: Managing in the Pacific century. Promaco Conventions, 2008.

[77] Zolin, Roxanne, et al. “Impact of embeddedness in ethnic networks on business growth: Evidence from Chinese immigrant entrepreneurs in Australia.” Babson College Entrepreneurship Research Conference (BCERC)(31st). 2012; Gao, Jia. “Entrepreneurship and community sustainability: The Chinese migrant experience in Australia.” ACRN Journal of Entrepreneurship Perspectives 2.2 (2013): 1-20; Gao, Jia. Chinese Migrant Entrepreneurship in Australia from the 1990s: Case Studies of Success in Sino-Australian Relations. Elsevier Science, 2015.

[78] Gao, Jia. Chinese Immigration and Australian Politics: A Critical Analysis on a Merit-Based Immigration System. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020; Liu, Xuchun. “Australia’s Chinese and Indian Business Diasporas: Demographic Characteristics and Engagement in Business, Trade and Investment.” Melbourne: ACOLA (2016).

[79] 比如，Wong, T. L., et al. “Understanding the Experiences and Challenges of Chinese Immigrant Entrepreneurs Operating a Business in an Australian Regional Economy: The Case of Tasmania.” (2017); Curran, Louise, and Michael Thorpe. “Chinese FDI in the French and Australian wine industries: liabilities of foreignness and country of origin effects.” the French and Australian Wine Industries: Liabilities of Foreignness and Country of Origin Effects (September 24, 2015). Frontiers of Business Research in China 9.3 (2015); Sun, Wanning, et al. “The Chinese-language press in Australia: A preliminary scoping study.” Media International Australia 138.1 (2011): 137-148.