顧秀林：盡我所能，翻譯了何美芸博士來信中的大部分。希望讀者有耐心，更希望有人分享我的欣喜：這麽大的進展，要上科學史了。我來發一個尋人啟事：生物學專業的學子，專家，波導：你們在哪裏？你們的專業裏發生天翻地覆的大事了，來關心一個？要不，就快來嘲笑我的翻譯不夠專業吧，指出我在哪裏翻譯的不正確吧！最好請集中火力來猛攻一個我非常認同的觀點：達爾文的隨機突變自然選擇，該進博物館了！一年前如果有人膽敢批評達爾文的進化論，還會被小方以極端輕蔑的口氣斥之為文傻，現在輪到小方自己顯示是個“科傻”的真相了。
科學是永遠進步的，一停就會死。最悲慘的是不是科學要改錯，而是我們的食物被邪惡的轉基因毀了，早在1980年代，決定論的“中心法則”就從根本上被撼動，然而邪惡的轉基因技術還是如毒菌一樣冒出來，被邪惡的孟山都公司瞄準送到我們的飯碗裏。轉基因技術可能安全的理論假設，已經徹底瓦解了，可是轉基因技術這股如泥石流一般的禍水，卻已經彌散在中國大地上——我的祖國被這邪惡糟蹋和毀壞，千呼萬喚，喚不來廟堂糾謬的決斷，祖國的生態安全底線，中國人民免疫力的極限，被邪惡的轉基因食品,左打，右打，打了又打，......要打到何時......這兩個承受力都是有限度的啊
This
article can be found on the I-SIS website at
http://www.i-sis.org.uk/Evolution_by_Natural_Genetic_Engineering.php
article can be found on the I-SIS website at
http://www.i-sis.org.uk/Evolution_by_Natural_Genetic_Engineering.php
James
Shapiro at University of Chicago Illinois in the United States is among the
pioneers who discovered the new genetics of the ‘fluid genome’ that, by the
early 1980s, had already shaken the scientific establishment to its roots [3]
(see also [2, 4], [5] Living with the Fluid Genome, ISIS publication). All the
basic tenets of conventional genetics that had dominated science and society for
at least half a century were being eroded by exceptions upon exceptions, until
the exceptions outnumbered and overwhelmed the rules.
芝加哥大學教授，詹姆斯.夏皮羅，是發現“流動基因組”現象和創立新遺傳學的先驅者之一。早在1980年代，他就從根本上撼動了（主流遺傳學）的科學體係。（注3，2，4，5，與流動的基因組生活在一起，ISIS
出版）。統治了科學和社會至少半個世紀的常規（正統）遺傳學說中的所有的原理，一個一個變成了“例外”。直到有一天“例外”占了大多數，主導了整體規則。
出版）。統治了科學和社會至少半個世紀的常規（正統）遺傳學說中的所有的原理，一個一個變成了“例外”。直到有一天“例外”占了大多數，主導了整體規則。
In his
1997 paper [1], Shapiro made a powerful case against the neo-Darwinian dogma
that evolution occurs by the natural selection of random mutations.
1997 paper [1], Shapiro made a powerful case against the neo-Darwinian dogma
that evolution occurs by the natural selection of random mutations.
在他1997年的論文中（注1），夏皮羅對新達爾文主義教條提出有力的挑戰：演化不是自然選擇的隨機突變。
Bacterial
genomes typically have a modular structure consisting of sets of genes
(operons外顯子)
expressed together. Operons have a characteristic internal structure, with
coding regions for regulator protein(s), structural/enzyme proteins and several
control elements. Every protein coding sequence in turn contains several domains
each with a defined function. Many operons are dispersed throughout the genome,
equipped with different combinations of similar regulatory/control genetic
elements and forming overlapping, often extensive ‘regulons’ (gene expression
networks) finely tuned to different stages of cell growth and development and
changing environmental conditions.
genomes typically have a modular structure consisting of sets of genes
(operons外顯子)
expressed together. Operons have a characteristic internal structure, with
coding regions for regulator protein(s), structural/enzyme proteins and several
control elements. Every protein coding sequence in turn contains several domains
each with a defined function. Many operons are dispersed throughout the genome,
equipped with different combinations of similar regulatory/control genetic
elements and forming overlapping, often extensive ‘regulons’ (gene expression
networks) finely tuned to different stages of cell growth and development and
changing environmental conditions.
細菌的基因組通常具有典型的分子結構，包含多套同時表達的基因（即外顯子）。外顯子也是各自具有內部結構，不僅有作為調節器蛋白質的編碼區，也具有結構蛋白質/酶類蛋白質和數個控製元件。每一個蛋白質編碼係列中都含有多個域並各自具有確定的功能。多個外顯子散布在基因組中，裝備著很相近的調節器/控製器元件的組合，形成相互交疊且範圍寬廣的控製子（基因表達網絡），它們對細胞生長發育的不同階段以及環境條件的變化，進行非常精細的“校準”（finely
tuned ）。
tuned ）。
Staggering
multitudes of protein-effector, protein-protein, protein-nucleic acid, and
nucleic acid- nucleic acid interactions are involved, all highly specific for
every occasion.
multitudes of protein-effector, protein-protein, protein-nucleic acid, and
nucleic acid- nucleic acid interactions are involved, all highly specific for
every occasion.
參與其中的，是多得令人驚奇的多重互動如：蛋白質-效應，蛋白質--蛋白質，蛋白質--核酸，核酸--核酸；每一種互動在任何情形中都具有高度的特定性。
Not
surprisingly, genomes have special mechanisms for correcting base sequence
errors during DNA replication. It is extremely hard to imagine how such a genome
could have been assembled or changed piece-meal by the natural selection of
independently occurring random mutations in different genetic elements. On the
other hand, a simple copying (amplification) process followed by cut and splice
different sequence elements together would be easily accomplished. Cells have
all the enzymes and cofactors required for such feats of natural genetic
engineering. In fact, artificial genetic engineering is possible only by using
the enzymes isolated from the bacteria themselves, albeit without the precision
and finesse of natural genetic engineering.
surprisingly, genomes have special mechanisms for correcting base sequence
errors during DNA replication. It is extremely hard to imagine how such a genome
could have been assembled or changed piece-meal by the natural selection of
independently occurring random mutations in different genetic elements. On the
other hand, a simple copying (amplification) process followed by cut and splice
different sequence elements together would be easily accomplished. Cells have
all the enzymes and cofactors required for such feats of natural genetic
engineering. In fact, artificial genetic engineering is possible only by using
the enzymes isolated from the bacteria themselves, albeit without the precision
and finesse of natural genetic engineering.
因此在DNA進行複製的時候，基因組自有修正基礎序列出錯的機製，是毫不奇怪的。無法設想這麽精巧的基因組是用組件組合起來的，或者某些基因元件能獨立地發生隨機的突變，改變了基因組，然後被自然選擇。從另一個角度看，把不同的序列做簡單的複製（擴增）後進行切割，拚接（splice）不同的元素，應該很容易做到。細胞裏就有進行自然遺傳工程的所有的酶和通用組件（cofactors）。事實上，人力做的基因工程必須運用從細菌自身中分離出來的酶才能進行，隻是這種人工的手術不具有自然遺傳工程的準確性和精細度。
‘Adaptive’
mutations involve features of precise natural genetic engineering Shapiro
discovered ‘adaptive’ mutations in bacteria (recently confirmed, see [6]
Non-Random Directed Mutations Confirmed, SiS 60). He investigated an E. coli
system that depends on generating a fusion lacZ protein, the b-galactosidase
that breaks down lactose to galactose and glucose. The bacterial virus (phage)
Mu was used to construct a strain in which a defective lacZ coding sequence
without its promoter - a control element required for transcription - and
carrying an ochre triplet (a stop codon) at codon 17 - so the transcript cannot
be translated fully - was aligned in tandem with another coding sequence araB
(from the arabinose operon) that has an intact promoter [1].
mutations involve features of precise natural genetic engineering Shapiro
discovered ‘adaptive’ mutations in bacteria (recently confirmed, see [6]
Non-Random Directed Mutations Confirmed, SiS 60). He investigated an E. coli
system that depends on generating a fusion lacZ protein, the b-galactosidase
that breaks down lactose to galactose and glucose. The bacterial virus (phage)
Mu was used to construct a strain in which a defective lacZ coding sequence
without its promoter - a control element required for transcription - and
carrying an ochre triplet (a stop codon) at codon 17 - so the transcript cannot
be translated fully - was aligned in tandem with another coding sequence araB
(from the arabinose operon) that has an intact promoter [1].
適應性突變，
夏皮羅發現了細菌的適應性突變（最近得到確認，見注6，
非隨機生成的突變被確認，SiS
60）。他研究了一種大腸杆菌，它（的生存）依賴於（分泌）lacZ
蛋白和果糖混合物。lacZ
可以把牛乳糖降解為半乳糖。這種細菌的病毒（噬菌體）Mu
被用來建造一個strain，其中有不活躍的、不帶啟動子的lacZ
編碼係列~
啟動子是轉錄所必須的元件，還有一種“三聯體”（ochre
triplet）(一種終止密碼子)
at codon 17，這樣轉錄就不會完整，同時串聯於另一種編碼序列araB
（來自阿拉伯糖操縱子arabinose
operon ），它帶著自己的啟動子。
非隨機生成的突變被確認，SiS
60）。他研究了一種大腸杆菌，它（的生存）依賴於（分泌）lacZ
蛋白和果糖混合物。lacZ
可以把牛乳糖降解為半乳糖。這種細菌的病毒（噬菌體）Mu
被用來建造一個strain，其中有不活躍的、不帶啟動子的lacZ
編碼係列~
啟動子是轉錄所必須的元件，還有一種“三聯體”（ochre
triplet）(一種終止密碼子)
at codon 17，這樣轉錄就不會完整，同時串聯於另一種編碼序列araB
（來自阿拉伯糖操縱子arabinose
operon ），它帶著自己的啟動子。
In
that way, a precise deletion of intervening sequence is needed to form the
fusion b- galactosidase protein capable of functioning to break down lactose and
enable the cell to growth on a selective medium with lactose as the sole carbon
source.
that way, a precise deletion of intervening sequence is needed to form the
fusion b- galactosidase protein capable of functioning to break down lactose and
enable the cell to growth on a selective medium with lactose as the sole carbon
source.
這樣，隻有當入侵的（編碼）序列能被準確地從混合物中刪除才能具有降解乳糖的功能，讓細胞在隻含有乳糖這一種含碳營養的培養基上生長。
【下麵的內容太專業，非我力所能及。生物學專業的科學家，我要發尋人啟事了：你們在哪裏？你專業領域有這麽大的新發展，你們不關心嗎？】
Shapiro
originally thought that the Mu prophage (phage integrated into the bacterial
genome) would be the passive source of homology (sequence similarity) to enable
the fusion to take place by homologous recombination to loop out the intervening
sequence, and such ‘spontaneous’ break-rejoin events would generate the actual
fusions by removing all blocks to transcription and translation between araB and
a site in lacZ downstream of the ochre triplet codon. But detailed studies
showed that the Mu prophage played an active role in the araB- LacZ fusions
using its transposase enzyme, and the process was precisely regulated by the
cell. Many different proteins and DNA sequences have to come
together in
choreographed succession to form and rearrange the nucleoprotein complexes
necessary for directing the precise cut and splice operations. A large number of
the molecular players have been identified since. In other words, the fusion
events happen as the result of accurate natural genetic engineering carried out
by the E. coli cell.
originally thought that the Mu prophage (phage integrated into the bacterial
genome) would be the passive source of homology (sequence similarity) to enable
the fusion to take place by homologous recombination to loop out the intervening
sequence, and such ‘spontaneous’ break-rejoin events would generate the actual
fusions by removing all blocks to transcription and translation between araB and
a site in lacZ downstream of the ochre triplet codon. But detailed studies
showed that the Mu prophage played an active role in the araB- LacZ fusions
using its transposase enzyme, and the process was precisely regulated by the
cell. Many different proteins and DNA sequences have to come
together in
choreographed succession to form and rearrange the nucleoprotein complexes
necessary for directing the precise cut and splice operations. A large number of
the molecular players have been identified since. In other words, the fusion
events happen as the result of accurate natural genetic engineering carried out
by the E. coli cell.
As
mobile genetic elements like Mu are found in all organisms, Shapiro thought it
reasonable to hypothesize that the regulatory aspects of the mutational process
exemplified by the araB-LacZ system might apply generally to other
examples
of adaptive mutations (see [6]) and described the numerous cellular functions
involved in different cases. He wrote [1, p.103]: “The depth of regulatory
interactions between cellular signal transduction networks and natural genetic
engineering systems is likely to prove typical rather than
exception.”
mobile genetic elements like Mu are found in all organisms, Shapiro thought it
reasonable to hypothesize that the regulatory aspects of the mutational process
exemplified by the araB-LacZ system might apply generally to other
examples
of adaptive mutations (see [6]) and described the numerous cellular functions
involved in different cases. He wrote [1, p.103]: “The depth of regulatory
interactions between cellular signal transduction networks and natural genetic
engineering systems is likely to prove typical rather than
exception.”
所有的生物中都含有活躍的遺傳因子如Mu，
夏皮羅據此認為可以提出一個假定，araB-LacZ
代表的突變過程是有調控的（注6），根據不同實例中發現的無數類似的細胞功能，他提出：（注1，103頁）：細胞之間的信號轉遞（transduction）網絡這種有調控的互動之深度，可能在說明自然的遺傳工程係統是一種常態，而不是例外。
夏皮羅據此認為可以提出一個假定，araB-LacZ
代表的突變過程是有調控的（注6），根據不同實例中發現的無數類似的細胞功能，他提出：（注1，103頁）：細胞之間的信號轉遞（transduction）網絡這種有調控的互動之深度，可能在說明自然的遺傳工程係統是一種常態，而不是例外。
natural
genetic engineering has large implications for evolution, Shapiro pointed out.
First, large scale
coordinated changes within the genomes of single cells are possible because a
particular natural genetic engineering system can be activated to operate at
multiple sites in the genome. Second, there is opportunity for adaptive feedback
to make genetic changes, thereby greatly accelerating evolutionary change during
episodes of crisis.
From ROM to RW genome
genetic engineering has large implications for evolution, Shapiro pointed out.
First, large scale
coordinated changes within the genomes of single cells are possible because a
particular natural genetic engineering system can be activated to operate at
multiple sites in the genome. Second, there is opportunity for adaptive feedback
to make genetic changes, thereby greatly accelerating evolutionary change during
episodes of crisis.
From ROM to RW genome
夏皮羅指出，天然遺傳工程對於演化理論具有重大意義。首先，單個細胞中基因組出現大量相互協調的變化是非常可能的，因為一項自然遺傳工程可以在基因組的多點上被同時激活和操作。其次，出現適應性反饋、促成遺傳改變的機會總是存在的，這就是：在危機的脅迫中極大地加快演化。
In his
new papers, Shapiro draws an illuminating parallel between the genome and the
computer [7, 8]; at the same time correcting some widely held misconceptions
about the genome.
new papers, Shapiro draws an illuminating parallel between the genome and the
computer [7, 8]; at the same time correcting some widely held misconceptions
about the genome.
在最新的論文中，夏皮羅用計算機對基因組做了一個非常清楚的說明（注7，8），
糾正了一些流傳很廣的謬見。
糾正了一些流傳很廣的謬見。
“The
genome has traditionally been treated as a Read-Only Memory (ROM) subject to
change by copying errors and accidents.” Shapiro writes [7, p. 268]: “I propose
that we need to change that perspective and understand the genome as an
intricately formatted Read-Write (RW) data storage system constantly subject to
cellular modifications and inscriptions.”
genome has traditionally been treated as a Read-Only Memory (ROM) subject to
change by copying errors and accidents.” Shapiro writes [7, p. 268]: “I propose
that we need to change that perspective and understand the genome as an
intricately formatted Read-Write (RW) data storage system constantly subject to
cellular modifications and inscriptions.”
夏皮羅把基因組和計算機並列，清晰地演示了二者的異同，糾正了對基因組的很多誤解。“人們一直把基因組當作ROM--隻讀存儲，出現改變是因為轉錄錯誤和事故（注7
第258頁），
我改變視角，把基因組理解為計算機的讀寫數據（RW），常規性地被細胞的操作進行修飾和命名。
第258頁），
我改變視角，把基因組理解為計算機的讀寫數據（RW），常規性地被細胞的操作進行修飾和命名。
The
ROM view of the genome is encapsulated by Sydney Brenner in his 2012 Alan Turing
Centennial tribute [9]: “Turing’s ideas were carried further in the 1940s by
mathematician and engineer John von Neumann, who conceived of a ‘constructor’
machine capable of assembling another according to a description. A universal
constructor with its own description would build a machine like itself. To
complete the task, the universal constructor needs to copy its description and
insert the copy into the offspring machine. Von Neumann noted that if the
copying machine made errors, these ‘mutations’ would provide inheritable changes
to the progeny.”
ROM view of the genome is encapsulated by Sydney Brenner in his 2012 Alan Turing
Centennial tribute [9]: “Turing’s ideas were carried further in the 1940s by
mathematician and engineer John von Neumann, who conceived of a ‘constructor’
machine capable of assembling another according to a description. A universal
constructor with its own description would build a machine like itself. To
complete the task, the universal constructor needs to copy its description and
insert the copy into the offspring machine. Von Neumann noted that if the
copying machine made errors, these ‘mutations’ would provide inheritable changes
to the progeny.”
Sydney Brenner 在2012年的艾倫.圖靈百年紀念會上的報告，闡釋了把基因組看作“隻讀存儲”的觀點，“圖靈的觀點後來在1940年被紐伊曼（Jonh
von Neumann）推得更遠。紐伊曼構想了一個會按照指令幹組裝活的‘建造者機器’。一個全能的建造者，用自己的圖紙可以組裝出另一個自己。它需要複製自己的圖紙，裝進它的子代機器，讓它去完成組裝任務。馮紐伊曼注意到，如果複製出錯，突變將成為可遺傳的改變，表現在下一代身上。
”
von Neumann）推得更遠。紐伊曼構想了一個會按照指令幹組裝活的‘建造者機器’。一個全能的建造者，用自己的圖紙可以組裝出另一個自己。它需要複製自己的圖紙，裝進它的子代機器，讓它去完成組裝任務。馮紐伊曼注意到，如果複製出錯，突變將成為可遺傳的改變，表現在下一代身上。
”
This
static mechanical view of the genome is a far cry from reality. Even to
reproduce a single protein – originally conceptualised as a single message –
requires elaborate cut and splice operations. The international research
consortium project ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) data have revealed
that
DNA include many ‘non-coding’ segments [10, 11].
static mechanical view of the genome is a far cry from reality. Even to
reproduce a single protein – originally conceptualised as a single message –
requires elaborate cut and splice operations. The international research
consortium project ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) data have revealed
that
DNA include many ‘non-coding’ segments [10, 11].
The
term ‘gene’, a theoretical construct that has never been possible to define
rigorously, is now known to be scattered in bits across the genome, overlapping
with bits of multiple genes that have to be spliced together to make a messenger
(m)RNA for translation into protein. The term now used for the bits is ‘coding
sequences’ or exons.
term ‘gene’, a theoretical construct that has never been possible to define
rigorously, is now known to be scattered in bits across the genome, overlapping
with bits of multiple genes that have to be spliced together to make a messenger
(m)RNA for translation into protein. The term now used for the bits is ‘coding
sequences’ or exons.
這樣靜態地、機械論地看待基因組，和實際相差很遠。按最初的設想，複製一個蛋白質隻需要一個信息，但事實上，僅僅複製一個蛋白質也需要剪切和拚接。國際DNA元素大百科項目（ENCODE）的數據告訴我們，絕大多數基因組DNA中都包含著大量的非編碼區段。“基因”這個詞匯，是一個一直下不了嚴格定義的純理論概念（theoretical
construct）。現在我們知道，在基因組上，“基因”是星星點點地散布其上，一個基因又和很多基因重疊，且必須經過拚接生成信使（m）RNA，然後才能被翻譯生成蛋白質。現在，提到“基因組片段”的通用詞匯是“編碼序列”，或者外顯子。
construct）。現在我們知道，在基因組上，“基因”是星星點點地散布其上，一個基因又和很多基因重疊，且必須經過拚接生成信使（m）RNA，然後才能被翻譯生成蛋白質。現在，提到“基因組片段”的通用詞匯是“編碼序列”，或者外顯子。
The
Turing tape analogy does not take into account the actual physical participation
of the genome in productive and regulatory interactions. The concept of a
Read-Only Turing genome also fails to recognize the essential ‘Write’ capability
of a universal Turing machine, which fits remarkably well with the ability of
cells to make temporary or permanent inscriptions in DNA. (Of course, it is by
no means all down to the genome. A genome outside a cell can do
nothing.
Turing tape analogy does not take into account the actual physical participation
of the genome in productive and regulatory interactions. The concept of a
Read-Only Turing genome also fails to recognize the essential ‘Write’ capability
of a universal Turing machine, which fits remarkably well with the ability of
cells to make temporary or permanent inscriptions in DNA. (Of course, it is by
no means all down to the genome. A genome outside a cell can do
nothing.
用錄音帶打比喻的圖靈解說沒有看到，在基因組中，生產性和調控性二者間實際上是互動的。對基因組的“隻讀存儲”式理解也看不到，圖靈機器中無所不在的“書寫”能力，恰好說明細胞能夠在DNA上做出臨時性或者永久性的改變（當然這裏不是把一切都歸於基因組；一個存在於細胞之外的基因組是什麽也做不了的）
。
The
numerous claims that synthetic biologists have created life in the laboratory
are spurious, as they all depend on putting a synthetic genome into a
pre-existing cell [12] (Synthetic Life? Not By a Long Shot, SiS 47).
。
The
numerous claims that synthetic biologists have created life in the laboratory
are spurious, as they all depend on putting a synthetic genome into a
pre-existing cell [12] (Synthetic Life? Not By a Long Shot, SiS 47).
據說合成生物學家在實驗室裏把生命創造出來了，而且說得很多，但那都是瞎扯。他們所做的不過是把一個合成的基因組嵌入現成的細胞（參見：合成生命？一拆就穿。SiS
47）
47）
Moreover,
it is not so much the cell, but rather the nature of living protoplasm that
keeps eluding our grasp [13, 14] The Rainbow and the Worm, The Physics of
Organisms, and Living Rainbow H2O, ISIS publications.)
it is not so much the cell, but rather the nature of living protoplasm that
keeps eluding our grasp [13, 14] The Rainbow and the Worm, The Physics of
Organisms, and Living Rainbow H2O, ISIS publications.)
問題還不至於細胞，還有總是從我們手中滑走的活的原生質（protoplasm）。（彩虹和蠕蟲，生物物理學，
H2O活的彩虹，
ISIS 發表）
H2O活的彩虹，
ISIS 發表）
Shapiro
[1, 7, 8] distinguishes modifications of DNA (rearrangements, deletions,
insertions, mutations) - which he regards as natural genetic engineering proper
- from epigenetic changes involving DNA/histone marks, or via non-coding RNA
species that occur constantly in real time within the life cycle of the cell or
organism. In my view, this distinction is artificial. There is no real
separation between epigenetic and genetic; they form one seamless continuum in
molecular mechanisms that interact with one another directly.
[1, 7, 8] distinguishes modifications of DNA (rearrangements, deletions,
insertions, mutations) - which he regards as natural genetic engineering proper
- from epigenetic changes involving DNA/histone marks, or via non-coding RNA
species that occur constantly in real time within the life cycle of the cell or
organism. In my view, this distinction is artificial. There is no real
separation between epigenetic and genetic; they form one seamless continuum in
molecular mechanisms that interact with one another directly.
夏皮羅（注1，7，8）區分開了“DNA修飾”（即重組，刪除，插入，突變）和表觀遺傳改變（epigenetic
changes）。在這裏，有DNA/組蛋白標記（histone
marks），換句話說，在細胞活機體的生命周期中，非編碼的RNA
species 常規性、實時地發生著改變。在我看來，這樣區分還是留有刀斧痕跡。我不認為遺傳和表觀遺傳可以截然分開。它們的分子機製在細胞裏呈現天衣無縫的連續，二者是直接的互動。
changes）。在這裏，有DNA/組蛋白標記（histone
marks），換句話說，在細胞活機體的生命周期中，非編碼的RNA
species 常規性、實時地發生著改變。在我看來，這樣區分還是留有刀斧痕跡。我不認為遺傳和表觀遺傳可以截然分開。它們的分子機製在細胞裏呈現天衣無縫的連續，二者是直接的互動。
In a
further paper [15], Shapiro himself proposes that during ‘life history events’
such as hybridization and chromosome doubling, viral or bacterial infections,
exposure to environmental toxins, etc., epigenetic changes are often accompanied
by mobilization of transposable elements that change the genome. And non-coding
RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in mobilizing transposons and in targeting specific
changes in chromatin, the DNA histone protein complex that forms a
chromosome.
further paper [15], Shapiro himself proposes that during ‘life history events’
such as hybridization and chromosome doubling, viral or bacterial infections,
exposure to environmental toxins, etc., epigenetic changes are often accompanied
by mobilization of transposable elements that change the genome. And non-coding
RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in mobilizing transposons and in targeting specific
changes in chromatin, the DNA histone protein complex that forms a
chromosome.
在另一篇論文中，夏皮羅自己提出，在“生命史事件”例如雜交或者染色體加倍中，病毒或者細菌侵染，暴露於環境毒素等，表觀遺傳的變化常常因激活了相同的元素而改變了基因組。非編碼的RNA
（ncRNA）介入其中以激活轉座子。
（ncRNA）介入其中以激活轉座子。
Another
common connection between epigenetic and genome change is that processed,
alternatively
spliced RNA can be reversed transcribed and inserted into the genome. On the
other hand, certain altered (reformatted) states of /chromatin can be passed on
to subsequent generations; i.e., they are inherited like a
interference RNA can also act independently as genetic material to perpetrate
epigenetic changes across many generations, as part and parcel of the hereditary
legacy of the organism (see [16] RNA Inheritance of Acquired Characters, SiS
63).
common connection between epigenetic and genome change is that processed,
alternatively
spliced RNA can be reversed transcribed and inserted into the genome. On the
other hand, certain altered (reformatted) states of /chromatin can be passed on
to subsequent generations; i.e., they are inherited like a
interference RNA can also act independently as genetic material to perpetrate
epigenetic changes across many generations, as part and parcel of the hereditary
legacy of the organism (see [16] RNA Inheritance of Acquired Characters, SiS
63).
另一個常見的關聯，表觀遺傳與基因組變化，是被處理過、拚接過的RNA逆向轉錄插入基因組。另一方麵某些改變了的（重新格式化的）染色質的形態（states）能夠傳遞到下一代，如同一個突變被繼承了那樣。
In the new genetics of the ‘fluid
genome’, the genome is no longer the constant and unchanging entity previously
assumed. Hence I use the term “natural genetic modification” for the totality of
changes in the genetic information of cells and organisms as they experience
their environments that are all necessary for survival, and some of which are
passed on to the next generation(s) [17].
genome’, the genome is no longer the constant and unchanging entity previously
assumed. Hence I use the term “natural genetic modification” for the totality of
changes in the genetic information of cells and organisms as they experience
their environments that are all necessary for survival, and some of which are
passed on to the next generation(s) [17].
在新的遺傳學說中，“流動的基因組”不再是以前假設的那種不會變的實體了。為此我用了“天然的基因修飾”這個詞匯，來指稱細胞和生物體遺傳信息改變的整體性。它們要在自己所處的環境中生存下去，就必須適應環境，某些適應性的改變會被今後的世代繼承下去（注17）。
We
shall follow Shapiro’s story [7, 8] on actual modifications of DNA base sequence
and the genome structure before dealing with implications on artificial genetic
modification and for society in general. The rest of this series of articles
will elaborate on the epigenetic aspects of natural genetic
modification.
shall follow Shapiro’s story [7, 8] on actual modifications of DNA base sequence
and the genome structure before dealing with implications on artificial genetic
modification and for society in general. The rest of this series of articles
will elaborate on the epigenetic aspects of natural genetic
modification.
我們將跟隨夏皮羅的故事（注7，8）往下走，講一講實際發生的DNA基礎序列的修飾和基因組結構，然後再談人工的基因修飾的影響，以及它在總體意義上對社會的影響。
本係列後麵的文章將詳述天然的遺傳修飾中表觀遺傳的事情。
Read the rest of this report here
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