人們普遍想過先有雞還是先有蛋的問題. 類似的但是更加困難的一個問題是:人是先有欲望,還是先有愉悅?—- 究竟是人要做某件事的欲望產生了愉悅的感覺?還是因為想獲得愉悅感這個動機驅動了人們做某件事的欲望?
這個問題好像很不好回答,因為有多種可能性. 下麵是一些相關例子.
人可能是想獲得“甜”這種愉悅感從而有了“拿一塊糖並放入嘴裏”這個衝動.
而對喜歡攀岩的人來說,因為攀岩的後果並不肯定總是愉悅的,比如攀岩者可能出事故從懸崖上摔下. 那麽他的成功愉悅隻能是“要攀岩“這個行動欲望中多種可能結果的一種. 除了自殺者,沒有人希望由喪失性命這個結果來驅動“去攀岩“這個欲望. 這個例子似乎在說 “要攀岩“這個欲望並不絕對依附於愉悅這個結果.
更複雜的一個例子是做慈善事業. 一個人去做慈善是由於追求做了善事之後的心理滿足亦或是追求現實中的名利收獲(如果是這樣,這位行善者一定會尋求行善回報)? 還是行善本身就是“欲望“,或者稱為動機,不追求行善這個行為能給行善者本人帶來的任何精神或者物質上的“愉悅”? 多想想這個問題,或許能給困撓一些國人的父母/子女關係問題帶來一些啟示.
17世紀的英國哲學家洛克John Locke在這方麵也做了不少探討與論述. 洛克在這個問題上似乎也無法做到邏輯自洽. 下麵就是羅素在引述洛克關於欲望與愉悅的思考並加以評論的文字. 在這段話的最後,羅素總結出哲學家包括洛克在提出命題後,在論證過程中為什麽會出錯的原因. 而這個出錯原因在今天的現實世界中,很容易在國內各類專家的言行中暴露出來. 用錯誤的方法是無法對一個目標係統做出正確的驗證,無論是證實還是證偽.
下麵這段文字很晦澀難懂,但包含了很豐富的內容. 我讀西方哲學的一個體會是,不管多難多“無用“的問題,他們都有人去做係統性的邏輯思考. 這些哲學家有時也在學說(doctrine)的正確性,精確性與邏輯自洽中掙紮,在兩者中作出他們自己都不情願的各種各樣的思想妥協. 盡管這樣,他們還是一代又一代的不停地在人類認知論上做出各種探索,產生出豐富多彩的哲學思想,指引著社會前進.
In the first place, to say that men only desire pleasure is to put the cart before the horse. Whatever I may happen to desire, I shall feel pleasure in obtaining it; but as a rule the pleasure is due to the desire, not the desire to the pleasure. It is possible, as happens with masochists, to desire pain; in that case, there is still pleasure in the gratification of the desire, but it is mixed with its opposite. Even in Locke's own doctrine, it is not pleasure as such that is desired, since a proximate pleasure is more desired than a remote one. If morality is to be deduced from the psychology of desire, as Locke and his disciples attempt to do, there can be no reason for deprecating the discounting of distant pleasures, or for urging prudence as a moral duty. His argument, in a nutshell, is: "We only desire pleasure. But, in fact, many men desire, not pleasure as such, but proximate pleasure. This contradicts our doctrine that they desire pleasure as such, and is therefore wicked." Almost all philosophers, in their ethical systems, first lay down a false doctrine, and then argue that wickedness consists in acting in a manner that proves it false, which would be impossible if the doctrine were true. Of this pattern Locke affords an example.