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中國人為什麽祭祖?

(2019-02-04 08:08:58) 下一個
中國人從遠古就有祭祖的風習,後來演變成國家特有的祭祀,規矩森嚴,而民間則成為基本習俗,即使今天現代了,祭祖的場麵時時處處可見。
 
也許大家覺得這是封建迷信,老實說我也不祭,祖先過了幾代是誰也記不清了,不過越是老,越能體會父輩先輩不容易,對某個人,某個親屬也許不覺得有什麽特別,可家族的觀念不容易遺忘。不忘祖,不是習慣,不是前人訓責,而是選擇。其實祭祖這事大有淵源,不僅僅是原始的風俗,不僅僅是上一輩輩傳下來的,祭祖是中華民族的特征之一。
 
遠古的時候,天地鬼神巫術,是全世界所有文化都經曆過的,祖先崇拜也不是中國才能見到(社會達爾文首倡者斯賓塞(Herbert Spencer)還說祖先崇拜是所有宗教的起源),從各種文化的埋葬儀式即可見一斑。埃及法老炫耀自己的先祖,希臘酋長也讚頌自己的父輩,可是埃及人想的是來世,希臘人見的是大神。中國人把天地鬼神巫術轉變成祖先崇拜幾乎是獨有的,祖先崇拜的基礎是血緣關係,祖先取代了超自然的神,宗族是個見得到摸得著的實體環境,自己是祖先父母養大的,自己成人就是他們帶來的結果,崇拜他們,求他們保佑,比求別的鬼神靠譜,聰明。祖先崇拜不僅僅是感激,它是把家庭、宗族和部落緊緊連在一起的一個共同信念。
 
據徐良高【6】估計,中國祖先崇拜並不是因為生產力發展,使得男性勞力占據主要地位而導致父權製所帶來的,當時反而沒有足夠父權製強化的跡象,最大的可能是人口大幅增加,生存導致衝突,衝突中男性地位得以提高,而要組織、團結、強化本宗族部落的人力,祖宗成了大家共同的目的,祖先崇拜成了關鍵的凝聚力。這種能力不但在衝突時是關鍵,在生產合作過程中也很關鍵。祖先崇拜自然把權威放置到長輩的手裏,這形成了其統治合法性的製度化,做決定也不再會依賴於變化無常的大神的眼色,給權力帶來了穩定的基礎。
 
選擇家族血緣“祖宗”觀念而非萬能的大神,是中國人的一個根本的特性。(牟宗三言及這反映了當時中國農業的發達,物質的保障讓人增加了控製自然的信心,降低了對迷信的依賴。)
 
“有虞氏禘黃帝而祖顓頊,郊堯而宗舜;夏後氏禘黃帝而祖顓頊,郊鯀而宗禹;商人禘舜而祖契,郊冥而宗湯;周人禘嚳而郊稷,祖文王而宗武王”都是遠古崇祖祭祖的典故,何炳棣【4,5】也認為祖先崇拜才是我國龍山時代至三代社會中的主要原始宗教信仰,並在當時社會中起著巨大的作用
黃土高原與毗鄰平原的村落定居農業奠定了“華夏人本主義文化”的物質基礎,孕育出“人類史上最高度發展的家(氏、宗)族製度和祖先崇拜”
 
何炳棣所說的,是中國文化和政治史上的一次跳躍性的發展,周公孔子 “禮”“仁”, “宗法基因”得以綿延兩千年而不衰。
 
我要說的是,祭祖這麽一條線索,把信仰、道德觀和文化串在一起,給中國帶來了一個全新的文化,在當時與古希臘媲美,足矣。在政治上,雖然希臘民主無法適應大國的統治【注1】,而在中國, 禮崩樂壞也是曆史趨勢,儒家按照三代宗旨推行的周禮王政也滿足不了春秋之際的爭霸需要。可是同時儒家把周禮發展成規則,成為禮教,把它當作人際間相互對待關係,把倫理關係形式化,成為體係,和以此為基礎的價值觀和道德觀,成為一個大家可以遵守的規則。儒家的禮教不僅僅是人與人之間的關係,也是社會不同層次之間(有等級的)的關係,換言之是個政治關係。儒家體製的基礎是家庭這一本身有內在凝聚力的單元,這也是政治和經濟單元。這個基礎成為之後中國文化的基礎。
 
家庭是古時世界任何農業文化的單元,不同的是,儒家的孝把這血緣關係道德化,成為社會行為的規矩。孝不僅僅是權利和財產權,也是責任,是家庭間成員彼此的責任,子對父有責,父對子也有父子有親,子孝父慈)。由此,禮教成了價值觀和道德,道德觀產生了善惡感,不僅僅讓整個社會有了一個基礎,而且製造了社會在國家與百姓這一垂直的社會關係外的一個層次,一個社區環境(社群主義是過去三十年才興起的政治哲學的新觀念),一是有穩定性(穩定是保守意識的核心),二是同時產生了一個橫向的結構,給社會帶來豐富性【注2】,這個結構就是今天大家熟悉的關係,具體的,就是所謂的民間組織。
 
現在常有把關係看成一個負麵因素,從現在的觀念來看,確實有這個問題,都是潛規則,你沒關係,啥也玩兒不通。不過不能簡單地從字麵看關係的反麵作用。用現代的語言來說,你沒關係,就是缺乏“置信度”(credibility),關係正是讓你增加置信度的社會結構和途徑。那在一個法製社會,這種潛規則是否就不合適了?第一沒有一個十全十美的法製社會,法律都是統治集團、利益集團意誌的反應(projection of power),第二,個人、家庭、團體、組織、社會都是不完美的單位,不僅不完美,而且充滿矛盾(亞裏士多德就深悉此中要害)。黑白製的法製理論上優越,但很多空白得需要潛規則來填補【注3】。關係對人類發展的重要性在英國作家英國作家弗格森【16】關於關係的近作有充分的描述。從古到今,很多組織都有建立這種關係的效能,如一神教和近代的黨派,用的都是信念。
 
儒家(和百家的大部分)最大的謬誤是輕商,以農為本,士農工商四民社會,四個等級。在我看來,社會是“國家-個人”權的一網,家庭宗族道德的一網,文化生活的一網,商業財富【注4】的一網形成的四維世界,價值觀不是單一的,如隻是財富,而是個綜合的觀念,是四個方麵的合成,少了一方,形如殘廢。
 
按照儒家最核心的觀念,家庭的利益和國家的利益是衝突的,一旦兩者的利益發生衝突,家庭的利益高於國家利益,這才有“君權民授”的天命說法,如果政府不能替老百姓消災去難,不能帶來好的生活,就沒有統治的權利,牟宗三【8】:
通過「敬德」、「明德」表示並且決定「天命」、「天道」的意義,那是一個道德秩序(Moral order) ,相當於希臘哲學中的公正(Justice) 。然而後者的含義遠不及前者的豐富深遠。孟子的民本思想,引尚書「天視自我民視,天聽自我民聽」為論據。的確,這兩句的意義非常豐富,天沒有眼耳等感官,天的視聽言動是由人民體現的。換言之,統治者須要看人民,人民說你好,那麽表示天亦認為你好,人民說你壞,那麽自然天亦認為你壞。因此人民的革命表示統治者的腐敗,在統治者的方麵來說,是自革其天命。天命的層層下貫於人民,表示一個道德的秩序。人民在敬德和明德之中,得以正視和肯定天道和天命的意義
 
這觀念具有現代的意識。中國之後兩千年的權術之鬥,就在於如何壓製這一觀念,即使到現在我們還在探討。專製必然導致坑儒、獨尊之類的綱領,這種思維一旦成為國家政策,不僅僅導致等級財富的極端化,更是禁止思想的多樣性,思想被扼殺,社會隻能往下走【注5】。
 
家庭宗族觀念是中國人的第二個價值選擇,這是集體利益高於個人利益,但集體利益是小集體利益,不是國家那麽大的集體利益,民生社稷的要害在於兩者間的和與統一,一旦大利益侵犯了小利益,傷了家庭倫理,小利益就有造反的權利(孝高於忠,這跟天命是一致的)。政治上,民本主義是中國社會的基礎。民本主義實質上就是表達個人追求幸福權利。儒家觀點潛在的要求是國家政府不能過強【注6】。
 
但是必須意識到,儒家禮製本質上是個等級、限製性極強的關係,家庭單位作為社會基本組成單位,其穩定性,就是說此單位的和諧是以一部分的犧牲而得到的。這一認識難說不合理,牟宗三【8】解釋如下:
孔子的仁不能單說包含了普博 (Universal) 的意義。雖然在仁的步步向外感通的過程中,當然具有普遍的、宇宙的、泛博的涵義,然而它不單具普遍性(Universality) ,而且由於感通有遠近親疏之別,所以具有不容忽視的「差別性」(Differentiality) 、「特殊性」(Particularity) 、或者「個別性」(Individuality) 。孟子說:「親親而仁民,仁民而愛物」,即是說仁的差別性
 
這種“犧牲”不一定是父權彰揚的結果,中國沒有個人(self)和自我(ego)的觀念,也就是說強調家庭間的關係的是“責”,權力自然流向“父權”,但不是“父”這麽一個個人。
 
祭祖和孝不是同一回事兒。孝的含義廣泛的多,祭祖這一條線索是怎麽把信仰、道德觀和文化串在一起?
 
李宏利【2】所言祭祖涉及 “‘我是誰’、‘我從哪裏來’、‘我到哪裏去’”,這不是廢話,而是大家說的所謂“根”,也就是哲學裏關心的本體論和目的論(參見:【20】),動物由本能支配,人依目的生存。他有句大話:若識得中國傳統祭禮,這三個問題自然引刃而解。
 
祭祖,是一種曆史觀,是對自己曆史的認可,是對自己曆史的自豪,是對自己曆史的信心。對曆史的信心,也就是對自己的信心。換種說法,中國人的信念是人。這才是中國人不信(現代意義上的)神原因,中國人對自我信心之足,完全不再需要一個外在的觀念,不管虛的實的。人本主義是中國精神的根基。
 
從此處解釋,你要是問儒家禮教的基礎是什麽?大家為什麽接受?那是因為儒家是個人本的曆史觀,是對自己曆史和文化的的自信,以此證明了自己的存在價值。祭祖是一種形式,一種觀念,一個意識,一條心意。祭祖把家庭的現實和家庭的曆史連在一起,給家庭這一單元帶來一個根基。
 
趙汀陽【13】說:“以曆史為本而建立精神世界是人的最大勇氣。把自己的價值和意義交給上帝,心裏的平衡是好多了”。這個“中國”理想,也就是中國文化,就是生活在這片土地上的人對自己的信念,自己的傳統和自己創造出來的物質社會,對趙汀陽來說,這一信念代表了,或者說取代了其它地區的宗教。趙汀陽說得較抽象,我們來分析分析這個過程。
 
一般有認為超越升華這一心靈的狀態必須依賴於一個超自然的觀念,如上帝,那是古人對人類心理學缺乏認識,尤其是當被宗教思維局限的意識時產生的,其實從柏拉圖到愛默生到(美國心理學家)詹姆士,自然的和形而上的觀念都能成為超越升華的基礎和目標,關鍵之處在於其價值性,廣泛性和持久性。牟宗三說,超越的核心是感知從有限到無限的跳躍,所以超越既是個認識論的概念,也是個知識論的概念。從知識論來看,超越要有個目標,就是有個實體,可這是個矛盾,是個悖論,需要超越才能理解的實體,不可能是實體。從認識論來看,超越是如何完成的呢?人的認識,感覺(perception)-感知(conception)-抽象(abstraction)-概念(如柏拉圖的形式,form)【這是我的語言】本身就是個糊塗的過程,無法在理性的框架內(形而上學)建立一個基礎(固有英國分析哲學說的,此乃大家神誌不清瞎說的結果),趙汀陽曆史為本的超越是把曆史這一由瑣瑣碎碎的事件實體轉發成一個過程,而把這個過程的每一步加起來,得到曆史的整體,而這整體就是個超越【注7】,從有限到無限的超越。
 
對中國人來說,曆史的含義是人,曆史是人的曆史,曆史的價值是人的價值。這樣,曆史能成為超越升華的目標,價值觀也能成為超越升華的目標
 
這種升華就成了中國文化。
 
這種曆史觀下的中國文化的道德基礎什麽是呢?簡單的,就是“仁”。仁是普遍的“愛”,但不是同等的愛,這結果既產生“己所不欲勿施於人”的常識,也產生遠近不一的區別,在政治上,產生了中國文化裏獨一無二的“和”的觀念。和不是同,是和而不同,不同而能相處是認識上的一個跳躍,是政治態度上的一個跳躍,不同而能共謀,不同的團體能共同相處,形成一個多元的大團體,產生吸引力、凝聚力,以此產生物質、文化。趙汀陽把這解釋為“漩渦效應”,也就是說,“中國”這個理想是中國附近遠遠近近的部落小國共同向往的理想,大家都以中國人自居,“逐鹿中原”的意思就是大家競爭,看誰最能代表“中國”(戰國到秦,秦到漢,漢到唐)。
 
其實中華民族是個古怪的概念,漢族、漢人基本是強加的概念,曆史上從來就沒有一個純粹的漢族,漢族不是一個種族。漢族,就是生活在中華大地的人,是幾百個,甚至上千的部落種族溶合成的,中華民族大概是這個大雜燴的漢族的體麵的名字。與種族之上、種族純粹的觀念相反,中國人相信雜而能成為一體正是中華民族的優越性,和不是大家一致,而是和而不同。中華民族的生命力,正是來自於此。【注8】
 
想起一件事。中國目前宣稱的“和平崛起”一說,總是告知世人中國曆史上從來就不是外侵的民族、國家。對此許多外國人,主要是西方的,不信,他們的口頭禪是,如果你們不外侵,怎麽國家變得這麽大?確實,幾千年前“中國”很小。不過我對中國曆史至少懂得比外國人多,想了好些年,我想說的是中國隻把外部“溶”進來了。這不好說清,後來發現趙汀陽這個比我高明的“天下體係”說法。趙汀陽看來中國從來沒有“帝國”這麽一觀念,目前這也是中國政府的觀點,很應時,不過西方卻不這麽看【注9】.
 
中華民族優越性導致的“漩渦效應”,局外人看來無疑是個邪說,因為西方的思維內這是不可能的,西方認為不可能的,就是不可能,他們不會去從你的角度想問題。還不僅僅於此,今天,幾乎所有中國人的思維方式都是西方的,方法論是西方的,語言是西方的,政治學、道德觀也是西方的,中國城市路標,用的不是甲乙丙丁,而是ABCD,習近平和中國一切官員穿的都是西裝,西方文化在西方火紅,在中國也一樣火紅。牟宗三也好,趙汀陽也好,他們都意識到大家對中國文化反思,用的也是西方方法、語言,我們整個現在西方的勢力之內,無論怎麽想,見到的是落後,不完善。
 
文化是會被遺忘的。現代化就是造成遺忘的最大的推力。牟宗三【8】“中國文化在開端處的著眼點是在生命,由於重視生命、關心自己的生命,所以重德”,【9】“仁的作用內在地講是成聖,外在地講的時候,必定要遙契超越方麵的性與天道”。也許珍惜自己的文化遺產,是珍惜生命,這是中國人為什麽祭祖。
 
 
【注】
【1】雅典藝術哲學燦爛輝煌,但軍事不是強國(被斯巴達克擊敗),民主帶來的卻是專政(蘇格拉底之死)、良知的結果是奴役(米洛斯對話)。
【2】一個簡單的複雜係統難以維持其豐富性而同時達到一個真正的穩定。
【3】古時唯有商能代表民間財富,商同時是編織社會網絡的唯一的有效機製。
【4】所謂民俗法,也是約定成俗,成法。
【5】中國傳統專製思維發展和其對整個社會經濟基礎和上層建築的控製最好的體現是對比(啟蒙時期)法國狄德羅和達朗貝爾的法國百科全書(1750年代)和乾隆的四庫全書(1770年代),一個是知識民眾化,一個是思想專製化。這也難怪新文化運動把孔家店當作第一敵人,砸爛家庭關係是第一大目標。
【6】孔夫子之後的曆史恰好與他所希望的相反,中央政府不僅越來越強,而且專製成了政府的主要動機,參與的層麵還包括了強大的官僚集團,國家和民眾之間的關係一直鬥到民國,結果儒家精華被抑製,糟粕被弘揚,難免最後不少名人智士覺得儒家除了糟粕。中國花了兩千年才被西方把這腐敗暴露出來,其生命力的強大可見一斑。
【7】不論從邏輯,語法(linguistic),語義(semantic)或理性都無法論證部分之和等於全體,這個觀念較複雜。
【8】中國最大的幾個“少數民族”都已完全徹底接受了中華文化,例外的,是維吾爾族和藏族,兩族約占1%人口。伊斯蘭教和基督教的教義是一致的,是個排外的宗教,不僅僅排外,而且是個黑白分明的宗教,自己等同於好,他人等同於壞。藏族較複雜,佛教本身強調自身修養,並不妨礙在其它方麵的,也許地理是個因素。
【9】我把最近達特茅斯一個清學者的看法附錄在下,她的觀點是清朝就是個帝國。西藏新疆的曆史較複雜,中國與新疆的關係過千年不不盡相同。不過中國曆代政府有刪改曆史的習慣,不是引以自豪的事,新疆教育營即使無可奈何之舉,也屬無能,實在令人失望。
 
 
【資料】
【3】劉真靈(高級講師,具體院校不明)伏羲祭祀儀式及文化內涵的變化
【6】(徐良高)祖先崇拜與中國早期國家
【7】餘英時《士與中國文化》(參見:12
【9】(牟宗三)中國哲學的特質
【12】(何懷宏)論惻隱之心
【13】(趙汀陽,2015京城國際論壇)我們認識中國,為什麽總走不出西方的框架
 
人道主義,人文主義和人本主義:概念和翻譯小史
 
【16】(弗格森,Niall Ferguson)The Square and the Tower: Networks and Power, from the Freemasons to Facebook
 
【17】(吳慧)《中國古代商業》
 
【18】(Joshua Greene)Moral Tribes
【19】(姚大誌)社群主義的自由主義批判
 
 
 
【附錄】
The Chinese Communist Party sees the past as a resource to be plundered by the present.
By Pamela Kyle Crossley(達特茅斯教授) | January 29, 2019
 
Chinese President Xi Jinping is directing a vast ideological war across multiple theaters—politics, culture, ethics, economy, strategy, and foreign relations. Among its most intense flashpoints is historiography, particularly of China’s last empire, the Qing, which ruled from 1636 to 1912. Historians, whether foreign or domestic, who resist Xi’s determination to design a past that serves his ideology have been targeted repeatedly by state propaganda organs. A new editorial suggests that this attack on Qing specialists is escalating.
 
Xi has a powerful weapon at his disposal. In 2003, 10 years before his assumption of power, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) initiated an ambitious project dedicated to Qing history. It was granted headquarters in the Zhongguancun district of Beijing, next to China’s leading technology companies. Its budget—never definitively quantified but clearly stratospheric as far as historiographical enterprises go—supported a threefold mission:
 
The first of these has been to complete the traditional arc in which each imperial dynasty declared its legitimacy by writing the history of its predecessor. At its demise in 1912, the Qing was not succeeded by a new dynasty, though Republican-era loyalists drafted a history that the new government refused to publish. In our century, the CCP has decided to seize the mantle of legitimacy by rewriting and publishing the Qing imperial history, which is now nearing completion.
 
The second is to digitize all the archival materials relating to Qing history. By 2014, the digitized image files of the documents were reported to total 1.5 million, searchable by metadata, and recent announcements show the number moving toward 2 million.
 
The third is to translate all foreign scholarship on the Qing period, which could run to tens of thousands of titles. But this task has become part of the intense struggle for control over the characterization of the Qing period—one in which Xi has co-opted the history project to defeat challenges to his historical confabulations from either conventional Marxist historians in China or from foreign scholars of the Qing.
 
Half a century ago, scholars from around the world agreed on the basics of Qing history. It began in 1644 when invading Manchus seized the former Ming capital, Beijing, and proceeded to establish their control over all of China. Their government followed the Ming model, and in the late 17th century the Qing began to spread Chinese control to Taiwan, Mongolia, Tibet, and what is now the province of Xinjiang. The 18th century went well for the Qing, which became the world’s largest economy. Its achievements in architecture, philosophy, and art were celebrated internationally by Jesuit residents of Beijing and their readers in Europe, including Voltaire. But in the 19th century, the empire was afflicted by the bloodiest civil war in history, the Taiping Rebellion; an onslaught of foreign gunboat diplomacy that deprived it of full control of its economy and urban spaces; and devastating military and economic incursions from rising, modernizing Japan.
 
But there were variations within this template. Historians who were part of China’s Nationalist movement condemned the Manchus as foreign vandals only too happy to abandon the Chinese to enslavement and massacre by other foreign aggressors. The idea of the “Century of Humiliation”—meaning, roughly, 1842 to 1949—that is now an all-purpose gripe in CCP justifications of its aggressive economic and military maneuvers is a synopsis of the Nationalist narrative of Qing failure, as is Xi’s claim that Confucianism was the core of Chinese tradition and must remain so. (In contrast, for Communist historians in China, the Qing, like other past rulers, oppressed the entire population of China by Confucianism, which blessed the predations of the land-owning elites while indoctrinating the masses in virtues of servility.)
 
In the late 20th century, historians in the United States, Europe, and Japan focused on the effects of early modern conquest and domination in the broadest comparative contexts—not only in Asia and the Middle East, but also in southern Africa and North America. They closely examined the effects of the great land empires of Russia, the Ottomans, and the Qing.
 
American historians, particularly, produced a narrative of the Qing as a conquest empire of global prominence, with not only power and wealth but also with the usual dynamics of violence (including genocide), hierarchy, and marginalized cultural identities. They noted that before its conquest of China the Qing was already an empire of considerable size, controlling Manchuria (including the former Ming province of Liaodong, roughly corresponding to the modern province of Liaoning) and dominating eastern Mongolia and Korea; they argued that that even after the conquest of China, Qing imperial government continued to show deep traces of its origins in Manchuria.
 
They used documents from all the empire’s languages, including Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Uighur—not just Chinese. They emphasized that the empire had grown to twice the size of its Ming predecessor by means of conquest—indirectly ruling Mongolia and Tibet, imposing an expensive military occupation regime on Xinjiang, and for the first time incorporating Taiwan into an empire based in China.
 
Xi’s strategy in remixing history is to draw selectively from the Nationalist and Communist historiographies, throw in some volatile nationalism, and resolutely suppress the implications of the new globalized and comparative historiography. The primary historical design shop is the Party History Research Office of the CCP Central Committee.
 
Through this mouthpiece, Chinese historians are instructed that a history of Qing conquest incites separatist movements in Xinjiang and Tibet, and in Taiwan it encourages those seeking formal independence for the island. Instead of an empire of conquest, Xi has rewritten Qing as a cultural and economic behemoth that awed and charmed the populations of Mongolia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Taiwan into happy submission.
 
Consequently, one of the first orders of business for Xi’s new administration in 2013 was to mount virulent attacks upon foreign historians of the Qing (including me) that continue today. Foreign historians are derided as imperialists in a new guise; these researchers devalue the uniqueness of the Qing as a Chinese dynasty by comparing it to other empires and imply that overland conquest as a historical phenomenon is more significant than Chinese rule. Articles describe them as “historical nihilists”; their imperialist and cosmopolitan perspectives override historical fact.
 
This idea that the full extent of Qing was reached naturally and peacefully is the source of China’s claims today to Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang, and it is critical to its claims to the South China Sea. The underlying premise is that sovereign control of any territory is legitimated foremost by the historical geography of the nation that claims it.
 
Yet no modern state today adheres to such unreliable and patently illegal principles of territorial legitimacy. Before the 17th century, no states anywhere had considered national sovereignty an absolute. The concept later spread via the European empires to the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Today, territorial borders are ratified by treaty and international recognition, not by extravagant and unverifiable historical claims. Nevertheless, only contiguous countries (the Soviet Union, India, Vietnam, and North Korea) have disputed Chinese land borders, and never on a significant scale. Neither the United States nor any European power has questioned Chinese control over former Qing territories within current Chinese boundaries. Tellingly, the most intense applications of these principles have occurred in relation to various areas of the South China Sea—and the sea is the one place where claims of historical Chinese rule can never be proved or even reasonably inferred.
 
But it is not foreign historians or diplomats who need to be—or can be—convinced by Xi’s version of history. The intended audience is in China. Denunciations of “nihilism” have become louder as Xi pushes his programs for reification of Chinese “tradition.” The party history factory has identified historiography as a primary field of battle between the CCP and its enemies and exhorts Chinese historians to “strike” more frequently and more forcefully against foreign colleagues.
 
Among the most recent and ominous of these strikes is a recent editorial in the official journal Historical Research (Lishi yanjiu)—republished in both the print and online versions of the party organ People’s Daily—titled “Firmly grasp the right to speak of the history of the Qing dynasty.” The editorial states that too many Chinese historians have fallen under the sway of foreign nihilists, producing a gusher of new scholarship on the Qing that in ideological potency has nevertheless been “far from sufficient to meet the needs of the party and the people.” It prescribes a “Qing history research system with Chinese characteristics, Chinese tastes, and Chinese style”—the essentializing narrative that Xi uses to glamorize himself and his foreign ventures.
 
Many scholars of Chinese affairs decry Xi’s ruthless war on the cultures and communities of Tibet, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia. That has nothing to do with history but is a matter of humanity and conscience in the present. No pile of historical claims to control of territory can excuse such abuses, in China or elsewhere.
 
“Historical nihilism” is nothing more than a denial that the past is fundamentally a resource to be plundered by the present. Xi’s imagined history of the Qing as a huge empire of wealth and glory without conquest or tears may seem inane, but Western historians should note the seriousness of the CCP and the Qing History Project, because their Chinese colleagues surely do. China, after all, has a rich record, past and present, of imprisoning historians, many of whom do not emerge from custody. In the “firmly grasp” of the editorial’s title, the character used (lao, 牢) literally means “grip, fix, trap, imprison.” In that grasp can be held both the history prescribed by Xi and the historians who might resist it.
 
 
Pamela Kyle Crossley is Collis Professor of History at Dartmouth College and a specialist on the Qing empire and modern China. She also writes on Central and Inner Asian history, global history, and the history of horsemanship in Eurasia before the modern period. Her most recent book is The Wobbling Pivot, China Since 1800: An Interpretive History (2010).
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mikecwu 回複 悄悄話 完全同意。我一直就知道我們的祭奠祖先文化遠遠優越於基督教之類的宗教。祖先給予了我們生命,不是什麽耶穌。祭奠祖先,明白祖先的血液在我們身上流動,明白我們對祖先最好的回報就是把祖先的基因繼續延續擴大下去。多子多福,不孝有三無後為大是中華民族的精髓。
yamyam 回複 悄悄話 很好
ily 回複 悄悄話 有關中國曆史文化非常好的文章!!!
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