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The Elements of Style by William Strunk, Jr Section 6-10

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Section 6

1. In summaries, keep to one tense.

2. In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.

   An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Juliet, meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the nondelivery of the letter.

   But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.

   The Legate inquires who struck the blow.

   Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).

   In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.

   In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions.

• 1. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

  The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end of the sentence.

  Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors.

  The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.

  The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement.

  Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America. With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourselves unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

  The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphatic when placed first.

  Deceit or treachery he could never forgive. So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

  A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,

  Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

  the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.

  Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

  The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.

Section 7

IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM

Headings. Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line. Numerals. Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.   August 9, 1918 Chapter XII Rule 3 352d Infantry   Parentheses. A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.   I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town. He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.   (When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)   Quotations. Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.   The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state."   Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.   I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come." Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature."   Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centred, but not enclosed in quotation marks.   Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded: Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven!   Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.   Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.   Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks.   These are the times that try men's souls. He lives far from the madding crowd.   The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.   References. In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words act, scene, line, book, volume, page, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.     In the second scene of the third act In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence) After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV. ii. 14). 2 Samuel i:17-27 Othello II.iii 264-267, III.iii. 155-161   Titles. For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial A or The from titles when you place the possessive before them.   The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes; A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities.

 

Section 8

V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED

(Many of the words and expressions here listed are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of careless writing. As illustrated under Feature, the proper correction is likely to be not the replacement of one word or set of words by another, but the replacement of vague generality by definite statement.)

All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words. As good or better than. Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.   My opinion is as good or better than his. My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better).   As to whether. Whether is sufficient; see under Rule 13. Bid. Takes the infinitive without to. The past tense is bade. Case. The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this word: "instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs." In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.   In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. Few mistakes have been made.   See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68-71, and Quiller-Couch, The Art of Writing, pp. 103-106.   Certainly. Used indiscriminately by some speakers, much as others use very, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing. Character. Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.   Acts of a hostile character Hostile acts   Claim, vb. With object-noun, means lay claim to. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: "He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir." (But even here, "claimed to be" would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain, or charge. Compare. To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London. Clever. This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters. Consider. Not followed by as when it means, "believe to be." "I consider him thoroughly competent." Compare, "The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator," where "considered" means "examined" or "discussed." Dependable. A needless substitute for reliable, trustworthy. Due to. Incorrectly used for through, because of, or owing to, in adverbial phrases: "He lost the first game, due to carelessness." In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: "This invention is due to Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires." Effect. As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring about, accomplish (not to be confused with affect, which means "to influence").   As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a charming effect was produced by." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.   Etc. Not to be used of persons. Equivalent to and the rest, and so forth, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.   At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example, or any similar expression, etc. is incorrect.   Fact. Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they may be, are not properly facts.   On the formula the fact that, see under Rule 13.   Factor. A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.   His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match. He won the match by being better trained. Heavy artillery is becoming an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. Heavy artillery is playing a larger and larger part in deciding battles.   Feature. Another hackneyed word; like factor it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.   A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell something of how she sang.)   As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a special attraction, to be avoided.   Fix. Colloquial in America for arrange, prepare, mend. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, fasten, make firm or immovable, etc. He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.   He is a man who is very ambitious. He is very ambitious. Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit. I have always wanted to visit Spain.   However. In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its sentence or clause.   The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp.   When however comes first, it means in whatever way or to whatever extent.   However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best. However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.   Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute for rather (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for something like (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil resin;" "I dislike that kind of notoriety." The same holds true of sort of. Less. Should not be misused for fewer.   He had less men than in the previous campaign. He had fewer men than in the previous campaign.   Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. "His troubles are less than mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine." "His troubles are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine." It is, however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less than a hundred, "where the round number, a hundred, is something like a collective noun, and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.   Line, along these lines. Line in the sense of course of procedure, conduct, thought, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase along these lines, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.   Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect. He is studying along the line of French literature. He is studying French literature.   Literal, literally. Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.   A literal flood of abuse A flood of abuse Literally dead with fatigue Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired)   Lose out. Meant to be more emphatic than lose, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of try out, win out, sign up, register up. With a number of verbs, out and up form idiomatic combinations: find out, run out, turn out, cheer up, dry up, make up, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb. Lose out is not. Most. Not to be used for almost.   Most everybody Almost everybody Most all the time Almost all the time

Section 9

Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character.

Acts of a hostile nature Hostile acts

Often vaguely used in such expressions as "a lover of nature;" "poems about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.

• Near by. Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it. Near, or near at hand, is as good, if not better.

  Not to be used as an adjective; use neighboring.

• Oftentimes, ofttimes. Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is often.
• One hundred and one. Retain the and in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.
• One of the most. Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, "One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe." There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.
• People. The people is a political term, not to be confused with the public. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.

  The word people is not to be used with words of number, in place of persons. If of "six people" five went away, how many "people" would be left?

• Phase. Means a stage of transition or development: "the phases of the moon;" "the last phase." Not to be used for aspect or topic.

  Another phase of the subject Another point (another question)

• Possess. Not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own.

  He possessed great courage. He had great courage (was very brave). He was the fortunate possessor of He owned

• Respective, respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage.

  Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively. The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings.

  In some kinds of formal writing, as in geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use respectively, but it should not appear in writing on ordinary subjects.

• So. Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: "so good;" "so warm;" "so delightful."

  On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.

• Sort of. See under Kind of.
• State. Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark. Restrict it to the sense of express fully or clearly, as, "He refused to state his objections."
• Student body. A needless and awkward expression, meaning no more than the simple word students.

  A member of the student body A student Popular with the student body Liked by the students The student body passed resolutions. The students passed resolutions.

• System. Frequently used without need.

  Dayton has adopted the commission system of government. Dayton has adopted government by commission. The dormitory system Dormitories

• Thanking you in advance. This sounds as if the writer meant, "It will not be worth my while to write to you again." Simply write, "Thanking you," and if the favor which you have requested is granted, write a letter of acknowledgment.
• They. A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one, everybody, every one, many a man, which, though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody, any one, somebody, some one, the intention being either to avoid the awkward "he or she," or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, "A friend of mine told me that they, etc."

  Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine.

• Very. Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves.
• Viewpoint. Write point of view, but do not misuse this, as many do, for view or opinion.
• While. Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and, but, and although. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or but, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon. This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,

  The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing.

  Its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.

  While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.

  I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a better cause.

  Compare:

  While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly.

  The paraphrase,

  The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly,

  shows why the use of while is incorrect.

  In general, the writer will do well to use while only with strict literalness, in the sense of during the time that.

• Whom. Often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb.

  His brother, whom he said would send him the money His brother, who he said would send him the money The man whom he thought was his friend The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend)

• Worth while. Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with not) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: "Is it worth while to telegraph?"

  His books are not worth while. His books are not worth reading (not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading).

  The use of worth while before a noun ("a worth while story") is indefensible.

• Would. A conditional statement in the first person requires should, not would.

  I should not have succeeded without his help.

  The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is should, not would.

  He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.

  To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without would, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.

  Once a year he would visit the old mansion. Once a year he visited the old mansion.

Section 10

 

VI. WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED

accidentally formerly privilege advice humorous pursue affect hypocrisy repetition beginning immediately rhyme believe incidentally rhythm benefit latter ridiculous challenge led sacrilegious criticize lose seize deceive marriage separate definite mischief shepherd describe murmur siege despise necessary similar develop occurred simile disappoint parallel too duel Philip tragedy ecstasy playwright tries effect preceding undoubtedly existence prejudice until fiery principal

Write to-day, to-night, to-morrow (but not together) with hyphen.

Write any one, every one, some one, some time (except the sense of formerly) as two words.

THE END