航空及推進係統和老照片

Engine Alliance engine GP7000. Engine Alliance is a 50/50 joint venture between GE Aviation and Pratt & Whitney.

T.O. Thrust: 76,500 lbs/340.3kN
OPR (max climb): 45.6
Fan Diameter: 116.7 in.
Emissions:
Nox: 59.7 g/kN
UHC: 3.9 g/kN
CO:  33.8 g/kN
Noise: 22.9 dB Margin to Stage 3


The B-1B: Rockwell (now part of Boeing) originally developed the B-1 Lancer, which is a four-engine variable-sweep wing strategic bomber used by the United States Air Force (USAF). It was first envisioned in the 1960s as a supersonic bomber with Mach 2 speed, and sufficient range and payload to replace the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. It was developed into the B-1B, primarily a low-level penetrator with long range and Mach 1.25 speed capability at high altitude.


F35 Courtesy of Rolls-Royce. On 7 July 2006, it was officially named as the F-35: Lightning II, in honor of Lockheed's World War II-era twin-prop Lockheed P-38 Lightning and the Cold War-era jet, the English Electric Lightning (see below). English Electric Company's aircraft division was a predecessor of F-35 partner BAE Systems. Lightning II was also an early company name for its fighter that was later named the F-22 Raptor.


The F135-PW-600 engine with lift fan, roll posts, and rear vectoring nozzle, as designed for the F-35B V/STOL variant, at the Paris Air Show, 2007. The Pratt & Whitney F135 is an afterburning turbofan developed for the F-35 Lightning II single-engine strike fighter. The F135 family has several distinct variants, including a conventional, forward thrust variant and a multi-cycle STOVL variant that includes a forward lift fan. The first production engines are scheduled to be delivered in 2009.

The F135 team is made up of Pratt & Whitney, Rolls-Royce and Hamilton Sundstrand. Pratt & Whitney is the prime contractor and handles main engine, and systems integration. Rolls-Royce is responsible for the vertical lift system for the STOVL aircraft system. Hamilton Sundstrand is responsible for the electronic engine control system, actuation system, PMAG, gearbox, health monitoring systems, and fuel system.

The F135 is a two-shaft engine featuring a three-stage fan (low pressure) and a six-stage high pressure (HP) compressor. The hot section features an annular combustor with a single-stage HP turbine unit and a two-stage LP turbine. The afterburner features a variable converging-diverging nozzle.

The conventional and carrier aviation engines, the F135-PW-100 and F135-PW-400, have a maximum (wet) thrust of approximately 43,000 lbf (191 kN) and a dry thrust of approximately 28,000 lbf (125 kN). The major difference between the -100 and -400 models is the use of salt-corrosion resistant materials.

The STOVL variant, F135-PW-600, delivers the same 43,000 lbf (191 kN) of wet thrust as the other types in its conventional configuration. In STOVL configuration, the engine produces 18,000 lbf (80.1 kN) of lift thrust. Combined with thrust from the LiftFan (20,000 lbf/89.0 kN) and two roll posts (1,950 lbf/8.67 kN each), the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem produces a total of 41,900 lbf (186 kN) of thrust, almost the same vertical lifting force for slow speed flight as the same engine produces at maximum afterburner, without the extreme fuel use or exhaust heat as wet thrust.[12]

The STOVL variant engages a clutch to extract around 35,000 shp (26,000 kW) from the LP turbine to turn the forward lift fans, while switching power cycle from mixed (turbofan) to unmixed (turboshaft). Power is transferred forward through shaft to a bevel gearbox, to drive two vertically mounted contra-rotating fans. The uppermost fan is fitted with variable inlet guide vanes and the fan discharges efflux (low-velocity unheated air) through a nozzle on the underside of the aircraft. This cool air from the lift fan has the added benefit of preventing hot exhaust gases from the core section from being re-ingested into the engine while hovering. Finally, bypass duct air is sent to a pair of roll post nozzles and the core stream discharges downwards via a thrust vectoring nozzle at the rear of the engine.[3] Measured by lift thrust in full vertical lift mode, the engine operates as 43% turbojet, 48% turboshaft, and 9% turbofan.

Improving engine reliability and ease of maintenance is a major objective of the F135. The engine has fewer parts than similar engines which should help improve reliability. All line-replaceable components (LRCs) can be removed and replaced with a set of six common hand tools. Additionally, the F135's health management system is designed to provide real time data to maintainers on the ground, allowing them to troubleshoot problems and prepare replacement parts before the aircraft returns to base. According to Pratt & Whitney, this data may help drastically reduce troubleshooting and replacement time, as much as 94% over legacy engines.

The F135 engines is not designed to supercruise. In August 2010, Pratt & Whitney revealed that the F135 was able to generate in excess of 50,000 lb of thrust.

Because the F135 is designed for a fifth generation jet fighter, it is the second afterburning jet engine to use special "low-observable coatings".


The RR Trent 1000: the three-spool gas turbine engine is developed by Rolls-Royce.



A three-shaft turbine system developed by Rolls-Royce.


Turbine blade cooling.


The F119 engine is in vector thrust testing. It powers the F-22 Raptor.

F-22 Raptor is doing Super-Cruise.

Performance testing of the Whittle jet engine, known as W1 on the experimental aircraft Gloster E28/29 that flew it in 1941.


Sir Frank Whittle, the father of aircraft jet engines.


The first historic meeting between the two inventors (left: Hans-Joachim Pabst von Ohain; right: Sir Frank Whittle) of the jet engine took place in WPAFB on May 3 1978 (Courtesy AFRL/AFMC)


The first production jet aircraft, the German Messerschmitt Me 262. Two Jumbo 004B turbojet engines powered the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter. The Me 262 first flight was on July 18 1942. Dr. Anselm Franz of the Junkers Engine Company designed the Jumbo 004, which was based on von Ohain's patent.

J-31: the first U.S. produced aircraft gas turbine engine (Courtesy of U.S. Air Force Museum). The jet engine comes from U.K. to the U.S. in 1941. It was the first turbojet engine produced in quantity in the U.S.. It was developed from the GE I-A, which itself was a copy of the highly secret British "Whittle" engine developed by Sir Frank Whittle.

F-22 is being grounded.


Pratt & Whitney's new after-burning F119 engine for F22 Raptor (company name: PW5000)：It is designed for efficient supersonic operation without after-burning (super cruise), and with increased durability over today's engines. F119 is a very high thrust-to-weight ratio engine, with advanced technologies, including  integrated flight-propulsion controls and two-dimensional thrust-vectoring engine nozzles.

The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries throughout the Second World War. The Spitfire continued to be used as a front line fighter and in secondary roles into the 1950s. It was produced in greater numbers than any other British aircraft and was the only British fighter in continuous production throughout the war.

The Spitfire was designed as a short-range, high-performance interceptor aircraft by R. J. Mitchell, chief designer at Supermarine Aviation Works (which operated as a subsidiary of Vickers-Armstrong since 1928). Mitchell continued to refine the design until his death from cancer in 1937, whereupon his colleague Joseph Smith became chief designer. The Spitfire's elliptical wing had a thin cross-section, allowing a higher top speed than several contemporary fighters, including the Hawker Hurricane.Speed was seen as essential to carry out the mission of home defence against enemy bombers.

During the Battle of Britain (July–October 1940), the Spitfire was perceived by the public as the RAF fighter of the battle, though the more numerous Hawker Hurricane shouldered a greater proportion of the burden against the Luftwaffe. The Spitfire units had a lower attrition rate and a higher victory-to-loss ratio than those flying Hurricanes.

After the Battle of Britain, the Spitfire became the backbone of RAF Fighter Command, and saw action in the European, Mediterranean, Pacific and the South-East Asian theatres. Much loved by its pilots, the Spitfire served in several roles, including interceptor, photo-reconnaissance, fighter-bomber, carrier-based fighter, and trainer. It was built in many variants, using several wing configurations. Although the original airframe was designed to be powered by a Rolls-Royce Merlin engine producing 1,030 hp (768 kW), it was adaptable enough to use increasingly powerful Merlin and later Rolls-Royce Griffon engines; the latter was eventually able to produce 2,035 hp (1,520 kW).

The English Electric Lightning is a supersonic jet fighter aircraft of the Cold War era, noted for its great speed and unpainted metal exterior finish. It is the only all-British Mach 2 fighter aircraft and was the first aircraft in the world capable of super-cruise. The Lightning was renowned for its capabilities as an interceptor; pilots commonly described it as "being saddled to a skyrocket". Following English Electric's integration into the unified British Aircraft Corporation, the aircraft was marketed as the BAC Lightning.

The Avro Vulcan (sometimes referred to as the Hawker Siddeley Vulcan) is a jet-powered delta wing strategic nuclear bomber, which was operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1956 until 1984. Aircraft manufacturer A V Roe & Co (Avro) designed the Vulcan in response to Specification B.35/46. Of the three V bombers produced, the Vulcan was considered the riskiest option. Several scale aircraft, designated Avro 707, were produced to test and refine the delta wing design principles.

The Vulcan B.1 was first delivered to the RAF in 1956; deliveries of the improved Vulcan B.2 started in 1960. The B.2 featured more powerful engines, a larger wing, an improved electrical system and electronic countermeasures (ECM); many were modified to accept the Blue Steel missile. As a part of the V-force, the Vulcan was the backbone of the United Kingdom’s airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the Cold War. Although the Vulcan was typically armed with nuclear weapons, it was capable of conventional bombing missions, a capability which was used in Operation Black Buck during the Falklands War between Britain and Argentina in 1982.

The Hawker Siddeley Harrier, known colloquially as the "Harrier Jump Jet", was developed in the 1960s and formed the first generation of the Harrier series of aircraft. It was the first operational close-support and reconnaissance fighter aircraft with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities and the only truly successful V/STOL design of the many that arose in that era. The Harrier was produced directly from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototypes following the cancellation of a more advanced supersonic aircraft, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154. The Royal Air Force (RAF) ordered the Harrier GR.1 and GR.3 variants in the late 1960s. It was exported to the United States as the AV-8A, for use by the US Marine Corps (USMC), in the 1970s.

The RAF positioned the bulk of their Harriers in West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Soviet Union; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces away from vulnerable airbases. The USMC used their Harriers primarily for close air support, operating from amphibious assault ships, and, if needed, forward operating bases. Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas. The Harrier's ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft. The Harrier received criticism for having a high accident rate and for a time-consuming maintenance process.

In the 1970s the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy (RN) on Invincible-class aircraft carriers. The Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War, in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile. The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defence while the RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force. The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV-8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace. The innovative Harrier family and its Rolls-Royce Pegasus engines with thrust vectoring nozzles have generated long-term interest in V/STOL aircraft. Similar V/STOL operational aircraft include the contemporary Soviet Yakovlev Yak-38 as well as one variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.

CFD simulation of the jet-free-stream-ground interaction during Harrier's landing and take-off

CFD simulation of transonic flow and shock-boundary-Layer interaction over an Onera M6 Wing.


The de Havilland DH 106 Comet was the first production commercial jetliner.Developed and manufactured by de Havilland at its Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom headquarters, the Comet 1 prototype first flew on 27 July 1949. It featured an aerodynamically clean design with four de Havilland Ghostturbojet engines buried in the wings, a pressurised fuselage, and large square windows. For the era, it offered a relatively quiet, comfortable passenger cabin and showed signs of being a commercial success at its 1952 debut.