2006年初在阿利托(Samuel Alito)大法官被參議院確認之後,奧康納黯然隱退,溫和保守派的奧康納被鐵杆保守派的阿利托取代的最大後果就是:肯尼迪作為僅存的溫和保守派和搖擺票,擁有了比當初奧康納還要大的影響力。
2008 年奧巴馬攜民主黨卷土重來,蘇特和斯蒂文斯也先後辭職,好讓一個民主黨總統任命自己的繼任者,奧巴馬提名了索托馬約爾(Sonia Sotomayor)和卡根(Elena Kagan)取代他們,就這樣,最高法院完成了新的一輪換血,羅伯茨率領斯卡裏亞,湯姆斯和阿利托組成了鐵杆保守派,金斯伯格率領布雷耶,索托馬約爾和卡 根組成了自由派,肯尼迪作為溫和保守派在大多數時候站在保守派一邊,但是也常在一些問題上支持自由派。
在 2003年的格魯特爾一案的判決之後,各種勢力的博弈就立刻開始,有的州如密西根州,幹脆就直接通過州居民投票通過法律禁止在公立學校錄取學生的時候考慮 種族因素,也有的州修改了本州公立學校的錄取程序以保證和奧康納的格魯特爾一案的判決一致,如得克薩斯州。在這裏我們花開兩朵,各表一枝,先來談談得克薩 斯州的訴訟。
在 2003年之後,得克薩斯大學想出來一個非常符合奧康納法官判決精神的錄取方案:得克薩斯大學把錄取名額的四分之三保留給所有高中的前10%的學生,也就 是說,任何高中,無論優劣,隻要你能是這個高中成績的前10%,你就被得克薩斯大學提前錄取了。剛才我們提到了:“怎麽不考慮種族因素就能保證種族均衡 呢?”,你還別說,得克薩斯州還真想出來這麽個辦法。得克薩斯州基本是各種族各自群居,非洲裔和非洲裔的住在一起,西班牙裔和西班牙裔住在一起,白人和白 人住在一起,也就是說,得克薩斯州今天基本還是實質上種族隔離,這樣的群居也就導致了各個高中也是涇渭分明,白人區高中幾乎全是白人,非洲裔社區的高中全 是非洲裔。因為每個高中不論其好壞或者族裔組成,其班級的前10%都能進入得克薩斯大學,這樣進入的得克薩斯大學的新生的種族構成就基本和人口的種族構成 差不多了。那剩下的四分之一的名額呢,如果你的成績不夠高中成績的前10%,那你就要通過一個很複雜的評估程序,在這個程序裏,種族將是一個考慮因素。
得 克薩斯大學得意洋洋地審視自己的錄取政策,真的是再滿意不過了,得克薩斯大學沒有考慮種族因素就落實了四分之三學生的錄取工作,非常符合奧康納的期望,剩 下的四分之一學生錄取程序的確考慮的種族因素,但那畢竟是因素之一,沒有人說得克薩斯大學把四分之一名額中的多少要交給非洲裔和西班牙裔,也沒有具體地說 如果你是非洲裔或者西班牙裔,你的入學機會就一定能增加多少,這也符合巴基和格魯特爾判決。
但是得克薩斯大學被挑戰了,挑戰並非因為得克薩斯大學工作的疏忽,而來自於巴基和格魯特爾兩案判決之間無法解決的矛盾。
奧康納大法官在格魯特爾的多數意見書說“考慮種族因素”必須要有一個邏輯終點,但是鮑威爾大法官在巴基的意見書裏說,不可量化。如果不可量化,那你怎麽知道是否到達了這個邏輯終點呢?你怎麽才能知道這個社會已經不再需要在入學政策上考慮種族因素了呢?
羅伯茨敏銳地感覺到了對方的弱點,但是隻有等到一個合適的案子,他才能借機向自己希望的方向推動習慣法。
他沒有等很久,僅僅七年之後,阿比蓋爾·費舍爾(Abigail Fisher)這個十八歲的得克薩斯白人小女孩,就把這樣一個案子送上美國最高法院。費舍爾在高中成績是前12%,沒有達到得克薩斯大學10%自動錄取的線,她隻有申請剩下來的25%名額,但是她被得克薩斯大學據了。她認為同班非洲裔和西班牙裔的同學論成績論課外活動都不如她,卻被錄取。她認為唯一合理的解釋就是她作為白人被歧視了。
在費舍爾一案的庭審中,保守派大法官們的立場一覽無餘,一開場斯卡裏亞就充當了急先鋒,他直接出手擋住了金斯伯格和索托馬約爾對費舍爾訴訟資格的挑戰。而相對沉默的羅伯茨一出手就是壓迫式的提問,讓得克薩斯州大學的律師幾乎沒有喘息的時間。
CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS:
I understand my job, under our precedents, to determine if your use of race is narrowly tailored to a compelling interest. The compelling interest you identify is attaining a critical mass of minority students at the University of Texas, but you won't tell me what the critical mass is. How am I supposed to do the job that our precedents say I should do?
Grutter said there has to be a logical end point to your use of race. What is the logical end point? When will I know that you've reached a critical mass?首席大法官羅伯茨:
格魯特爾說使用種族的錄取政策必須有一個邏輯上的終結點。這個邏輯上的終點是什麽?我什麽時候才知道你已經保證少數族裔在大學裏能有足夠代表呢?
這是一個巨大的邏輯陷阱,如果得克薩斯大學的律師列舉數字的話,羅伯茨就會立刻指責得克薩斯大學違反了巴基,因為巴基不允許大學使用量化的指標。得克薩斯大學的律師隻好不斷地騰挪躲閃。
但是羅伯茨緊追不舍:
At what level will it satisfy the critical mass?
到了什麽程度才能讓你覺得少數族裔在大學裏能有足夠代表呢?
這當然是得克薩斯大學的律師不可能,也不敢於回答的,因為這正是巴基和格魯特爾最深層的矛盾。羅伯茨抓住對方這一弱點不斷攻擊,讓得克薩斯大學的律師狼狽不堪。他甚至連對方喘氣的機會都不給,就繼續指出現行製度的荒謬之處:
CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Counsel, before -- I need to figure out exactly what these numbers mean. Should someone who is one-quarter Hispanic check the Hispanic box or some different box?
首席大法官羅伯茨:如果一個人是1/4西班牙裔血統,他應該在申請表上選擇“西班牙裔”麽?
這是羅伯茨常用的“邏輯斜坡”陷阱,他先誘使你給出一個回答,然後他把你放上一個你刹不住車的邏輯斜坡上,讓你滑入荒謬絕倫的邏輯深淵,有很多老律師都在這上麵被羅伯茨修理得很慘。得克薩斯大學的律師看著危險迎麵而來,但是羅伯茨不給他考慮的機會:
CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: They would check that box. What about one-eighth?
首席大法官羅伯茨:那1/8西班牙裔血統怎麽辦?
顯然1/4西班牙裔和1/8西班牙裔血統在法律角度下沒有什麽區別,得克薩斯大學的律師當然不可能主張把兩者區別對待,但是這樣的邏輯延伸是沒有止境的,1/8西班牙裔和1/16西班牙裔之間又有何區別?在羅伯茨犀利的攻擊下,現行製度的荒唐性被淋漓盡致地展現在眼前。
這整個庭審期間羅伯茨首席大法官擔任了主攻手的角色,得克薩斯大學的律師左支右絀,忙於防禦。庭審結束之後幾乎所有的人都覺得強製優待政策的前途堪虞,大法官們在那個星期的星期五進入秘密會議表決,大家隻好等著他們宣布結果。
結果一等就是八個多月,2012年10月10日的庭審,直到2013年的6月24日才宣判。一般而言最高法院的案子簡單的一個月判決書就出來了,越複雜的案子花的時間就越多,花了八個月才宣判一般是案子在大法官之間有很多反複。
但是最奇怪的事情發生了:費舍爾訴得克薩斯大學的判決書簡單地出奇,以肯尼迪大法官主筆的判決書隻是把案子發回下級法院,他得到了其他六位法官的支持,隻有金斯伯格異議(卡根可能因為擔任奧巴馬政府首席律師的時候參與幫助得克薩斯大學的工作,在此案回避了)。
No. I was hoping that the necessity of this policy becomes more conspicuous, once a cross-comparison is made. However, by now, I don’t think you understood the gist of this conversation.
I explained the need for affirmative action in the education system for the country (USA) as a whole. I have also compared the need for this policy in different countries – countries that have utilized more or less of the same policy for similar reasons. I was hoping you’d understand the purpose -- that the country as a whole should grow together. The opportunities for entry to the best colleges should be afforded to all -- not just you and I.
The emphasis here is not about one person, or one race. It is about the benefit and advancement of the entire country. On that, there are similarities between US and mainland China -- currently, or historically.
So you are using China Mainland's education system to justify US's AA?
Everything has a reason to exist but that does not justify it. Slavery existed for a long time, so did women's foot-binding in China mainland.
Your logic does not work.
I thought I already answered. Firstly – to say that particular students are accepted only because of their skin color and not the content of their character is, quite frankly, wrong. A student without sufficient substance will never be accepted by the ivy league schools, whatever the race.
And to respond to your other question – I would say, no. Providing more educational opportunities to minorities does not hurt the country’s global competitiveness as a whole. How could it? The policy’s purpose is to elevate the entire country, not just particular races that are over-represented in the ivy league schools. I thought the answer is rather obvious.
And yes – the country has an interest to enhance the educational opportunities to all races. Look at the US. Look at mainland China. This policy has existed for hundreds of years in different forms. For example, the traditional Chinese imperial examination system:
在明仁宗時確定,會試按地域分配名額。在會試的試卷中加上「南」、「北」等字,按「南六十」、「北四十」的規定錄取進士。之後比例偶有調整,但按地域分配名額的製度一直沿用至清朝科舉被廢。名額保障製度保障了文化相對落後的邊遠省份(如甘肅、貴州、雲南等),使每屆科舉會試各地都有一定數量的舉人成為進士,進入政界的中高層,有利於保持國家的統一與政治安定。
(see https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E4%B8%BE%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6#cite_note-acpsh-32 )
Again – I am sure you can see the similarity with the system today. This policy (or different versions of it) existed for so long for a reason.
The reality is particular races are favored (with other races being suffering) just because of their skin color which has nothing to do with the content of their character. Isn't this hurting the country's global competitiveness as whole? Is this of the interest of the country from a larger perspective, in your view?
They are other ways to provide opportunities to certain races.
I am all for having more Asian players in the NBA. If you start a petition to the NBA commissioner on this, let me know and I’ll sign it.
On the other hand, I would not urge adding more Asians to jail, if that is what you mean.
>> -- 這裏你把因果關係弄反了。 我也希望自己的孩子能輕輕鬆鬆玩著玩著就上好大學
>> -- How the country as whole will continue to suffer if particular races choose not to make substantial efforts to increase their own market competitiveness….
I can argue with you on this all day from the perspectives of an individual, but it won’t be of much use. I am asking you to understand this from a public policy perspective.
To make it easier to understand: here is a Chinese equivalent for you to consider. Take below, for example – 少數民族高考加分政策 (see http://edu.sina.com.cn/gaokao/2015-01-01/1053452450.shtml )
See also:
我國是一個多民族國家,由於各地區各民族之間發展的差異,導致基礎教育水平參差不齊,為了保證教育水平相對落後的民族地區的少數民族考生也能享受到接受高等教育的權利,國家製定了許多民族照顧政策,其中惠及範圍比較廣的有民族預科班、民族加分或降分等等,就全國為數眾多的少數民族考生而言,高考填報誌願時如果能夠對這些民族照顧政策加以充分利用,往往可以起到錦上添花甚至改變最終錄取結果的作用。
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4a615c6701007ydk.html
I am sure you see the similarities between U.S. and mainland China on this issue.
Is this fair to the Hans? No. Does the country need this for the benefit of the minority races? Yes. I don’t expect you to find fairness from a personal view. I ask you to understand the reason for this policy, however, from a national perspective.
I would dare to say that considering race in college admission is quite different from presuming guilt based on the color of someone’s skin. Nonetheless – the policy here is about providing more opportunities to certain races. Asians have benefitted from diversity, too. The discussion here is – should we keep the door open to other races, or do we narrow that door to benefit Asians at the cost of the entire country (particularly when Asians are already overrepresented, at 370%?
And, to be clear – I don’t think this is a “good thing.” I just think, from a policy perspective, this is a necessary thing, for the time being.
-- NBA裏麵的華人是不是 under-represented? 是不是應該糾正? 監獄裏麵,黑人已經 over-represented,那麽司法機構是不是應該對黑人特別寬鬆一些,以增加監獄裏的diversity?
"I don't see a crusade for justice here. What I see is the same battle that was fought for by countless Asian tiger moms and dads -- name brand education, whatever the price. "
-- 這裏你把因果關係弄反了。 我也希望自己的孩子能輕輕鬆鬆玩著玩著就上好大學,現實是,在這些案子裏,為了獲取同一所學校的錄取,華人孩子必須要比其他族裔的孩子優秀-- 即便更加優秀,甚至還得不到錄取 -- 僅僅是因為族裔。在這樣的現狀下,為了為自己的孩子爭取受教育的權利,我們還能怎麽辦?誰願意自己的孩子小小年紀就戴著眼鏡成天苦讀?誰不希望自己的孩子有一個輕鬆愉快的童年? What's the price we are paying for it, and why?
"But, if they do not do so, this country as a whole will continue to suffer. Particular races will fall further and further behind in the academic arena and face even further deprivations in educational opportunities."
-- How the country as whole will continue to suffer if particular races choose not to make substantial efforts to increase their own market competitiveness? On the contrary, the reality is particular races are favored (with other races being suffering) just because of their skin color which has nothing to do with the content of their character. Isn't this hurting the country's global competitiveness as whole? Is this of the interest of the country from a larger perspective, in your view?
"And, yes, the colleges and universities favor certain races over the Asians" if this is a good thing, then why police do racial profiling is a bad thing?
Who would that be?
There are plenty of Asian men who made it to the HYSP as well. Jeremy Lin is one such example. (It is dangerous to use over-generalization in one's analysis and allow emotion overshadow reason, you know.)
And, yes, the colleges and universities favor certain races over the Asians. We know that. But, if they do not do so, this country as a whole will continue to suffer. Particular races will fall further and further behind in the academic arena and face even further deprivations in educational opportunities. On this issue, I believe we must look at the interest of the country from a larger perspective.
And, it is hard to make a case of Asian discrimination here. Asians make up about 5.6% in population, but 21.1% in the Harvard student body. If anything, Asians are already over-represented.
I don't see a crusade for justice here. What I see is the same battle that was fought for by countless Asian tiger moms and dads -- name brand education, whatever the price.