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丹尼爾·貝爾 中國模式好 民主政治壞

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Daniel A. Bell 丹尼爾·A·貝爾
https://danielabell.com/contact/?

Daniel A. Bell是香港大學法學院政治理論講座教授。2017年至2022年擔任山東大學(青島)政治學與公共管理學院院長。他來自蒙特利爾,曾就讀於麥吉爾大學和牛津大學。 他曾在新加坡、香港、上海和北京擔任教職,並在普林斯頓大學、斯坦福大學和希伯來大學獲得研究獎學金。

Daniel A. Bell  is Chair Professor of Political Theory with the Faculty of Law at the University of Hong Kong. He was Dean of the School of Political Science and Public Administration at Shandong University (Qingdao) from 2017 to 2022. He is from Montreal and was educated at McGill University and Oxford University. He has held teaching posts in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai and Beijing, and research fellowships at Princeton, Stanford, and Hebrew University. 

YouTube 中美政治最大的不同之處,香港大學美籍教授精彩分析,網友:真正懂中國的美國人!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMuDfUXH1yA&ab_channel=%E6%B4%9E%E8%A6%8B%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B

Introduction to The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy

https://www.lhp.sdu.edu.cn/__local/8/A3/41/19FC270FED665F76E15B982A2E0_2113C3A6_144AFB.pdf

中國模式:政治精英與民主的局限性

The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy 
https://www.amazon.ca/China-Model-Political-Meritocracy-Democracy/dp/0691173044

2016 年 9 月 6 日 作者:Daniel A. Bell 丹尼爾·A·貝爾

中國的政治模式如何成為西方民主的可行替代方案

西方人傾向於將政治世界分為“好的”民主國家和“壞的”獨裁政權。 但中國的政治模式並不完全適合這兩類。 在過去的三十年裏,中國已經形成了一種可以用“賢能政治”來形容的政治製度。 中國模式旨在了解這一獨特政治體係的理想和現實。 賢能政治理想如何為評價中國政治進步(和倒退)設定標準? 中國如何避免賢能政治的弊端? 政治賢能政治如何與民主最好地結合起來? 丹尼爾·貝爾回答了這些問題以及更多問題。

貝爾首先批評了“一人一票”作為選擇最高領導人的方式,他認為中國式的賢能政治有助於彌補選舉民主的關鍵缺陷。 他討論了賢能政治的優點和缺陷,區分了賢能政治和民主相結合的不同方式,並認為中國已經形成了一種道德上可取且政治穩定的民主賢能政治模式。 貝爾總結並評估了“中國模式”——上層是精英統治,中層是實驗性,下層是民主——及其對世界其他國家的影響。

《中國模式》是一本適時而原創的書,將引起人們的興趣和爭論,它著眼於一種不僅在中國有著悠久曆史的政治體係,而且可能被證明是二十一世紀最重要的政治發展。

書評:中國模式:政治精英與民主的局限性

https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-china-model-political-meritocracy-and-the-limits-of-democracy/

丹尼爾·貝爾,《中國模式:政治賢能政治與民主的局限性》,普林斯頓大學出版社,2015 年,318 頁,29.95 美元(hbk),ISBN 9780691166452。

複旦大學白同東審稿

2016.01.07

在丹尼爾·A·貝爾的著作中,似乎有兩個貝爾:政治理論家貝爾和政治觀察家貝爾。 這種二元性可能與他的社群主義有關,社群主義雖然是一種哲學觀點,但強調社群、曆史和文化的特殊性。 我認為自己是一個傳統意義上的政治哲學家,關注普遍性或可普遍性。 因此,我對政治哲學家貝爾的欣賞要多一些,盡管貝爾作為政治觀察家,對西亞和東亞(無論是理論還是實踐)都有深入的了解,有時還帶有逆向傾向,經常能提供新的視角。 有趣且發人深省的政治和文化。

貝爾著作的一個共同主題是挑戰自由民主是曆史終結的信念並提出替代方案。 本書的新穎之處在於,他在“特殊主義”道路上走得更遠。 我評論的他的最後一本書是《超越自由民主:東亞背景下的政治思維》。 主標題聽起來是普遍主義的,而副標題則暗示了特殊主義的傾向。 他的新書的書名顛倒了這個順序。 原因如下:

我早期關於政治賢能政治的著作更多地受到儒家哲學的啟發,而不是實際的政治。 在過去的幾年裏,我逐漸認識到中國的政治製度具有精英政治的特征,哪怕隻是因為我自己在清華大學的優秀學生越來越多地被中共吸收。 (12)[1]

因此,在本書中,他沒有提出一種基於儒家思想的治理替代方案,而是提出了一種基於當代中國政權的治理方案。 對他來說,後者既有中國傳統政權的特征,也有儒家經典的特征。 他使用所有這些來源的材料,但主要重點是當代中國政府的做法。

盡管主流信念仍然是自由民主是最好的治理模式,但西方的失敗和中國的成功都引發了對這一信念的質疑,貝爾在引言中承認了這一點。 然後他開始捍衛他所謂的政治賢能政治。 他將此與自由民主國家現有的精英政治區分開來,在自由民主國家中,專家被選拔在狹隘的領域內以中立的方式工作,也與經濟精英政治區分開來,後者遵循“各盡所能,各盡所能”的原則。 他的貢獻”(5)。 在經濟問題上,貝爾與約翰·羅爾斯等政治理論家乃至遵循“各盡所能、按需分配”原則的“高級共產主義”堅定地站在左翼(5)。

為了給政治賢能政治騰出空間,貝爾必須挑戰“民主是最不壞的政權”這一信條。 塞繆爾·亨廷頓等政治現實主義者,甚至中國的黨派保守派,“警告我們,在貧窮的發展中國家不可能輕易建立民主”(15),但問題實際上是時間問題,而不是民主化的可取性問題。 相比之下,貝爾在第一章中指出了“選舉民主的四個關鍵問題:多數人的暴政、少數人的暴政、投票群體的暴政以及競爭性個人主義者的暴政”(20)。 他所說的第一種暴政,是指在政治決策中起決定性作用的大多數公民對政治一無所知,而且在理性上也是如此。 有人可能會說,盡管存在這種無知,但選民的集體智慧應該值得信任,但貝爾認為,隻有當參與者已經了解情況時,集體智慧才是智慧。 不幸的是,政治的現實是,議政者不參與,參與政治的人不議事。 你可以通過辯稱這是一個公平的程序來捍衛一人一票,但貝爾的反駁是:我們為什麽不扔一枚硬幣呢? 我們拒絕這一程序表明我們確實關心理想的後果,而大多數無知的選民並沒有實現這一點。 第二個問題是經濟不平等加劇導致超級富豪占據主導地位。 盡管缺乏經濟和政治流動性,美國人卻設法相信相反的情況,對貝爾來說,這隻是一種幻覺。

第三個問題是,一個國家的選民可以決定影響超出國家及其公民範圍的事務,例如氣候變化以及對敵方戰鬥人員和涉嫌恐怖分子的酷刑。 最後一個問題源於貝爾認為,民主政治中激烈的個人主義競爭是抹黑運動和黨派政治的根源,以致儒家和儒家國家所重視的和諧價值被忽視。

貝爾認為,當代中國政權,尤其是精英政治,可能會解決選舉民主的一些問題。 但一個問題是,即使中國政權確實能更好地解決這些問題,它是否會比選舉民主更好。 但貝爾認為討論中國政權(也許以稍微理想化的形式)值得,原因如下。 首先,從第二章中,我們至少可以看到,選舉民主並不明顯優於其他替代方案。 其次,中國政權提供了現實世界的精英統治模式,而不是一些可能很容易被認為不切實際的想象政權。 第三,中國的一黨專政不會很快崩潰,討論其優缺點至少有助於理解和改進中國政治,其好處是顯而易見的。

在第二章中,貝爾討論了精英管理的一個關鍵問題:如何根據他們的優點來選擇領導者。 關於商業領導力的討論有很多,但它們並不完全適用於政治案例,因為商業領導者往往比政治領導者有更簡單的目標(盈利是最重要的)。 貝爾提出的一種選拔方法是中國傳統科舉的一種更新形式,即“公共服務考試(誤導性地翻譯為‘公務員考試’)”(78),它往往側重於候選人的智力能力。 政治領導人的社交技能也很重要,但很難衡量。 貝爾建議我們應該認真對待揭示一個人社交技能的特征,例如年齡和性別。 另一個政治功績是美德。 對充滿美德頌揚的經典作品進行測試會有所幫助,因為這些經典作品可以默默地塑造一個人的性格。 戰爭英雄或那些致力於非營利組織的人也往往是有道德的。 最重要的是,同行的評價可能是衡量一個人美德的好方法。

在第三章中,貝爾討論了政治賢能政治的一些問題並提出了解決方案。 第一個問題是腐敗,他的解決方案包括法治、言論自由、執法、市場化的薪酬製度和道德修養。 最後一條也被一些中國共產黨人所強調,但在貝爾看來,這來自儒家傳統,而不是馬克思主義傳統,馬克思主義傳統不太注重道德修養。 令貝爾遺憾的是,“黨尚未采取正式步驟,正式用儒家思想取代共產主義”(124)。

第二個問題是僵化,他舉例提到新加坡和法國的政治精英缺乏同情心,對群眾充滿傲慢的問題。 他提出的解決方案是加強同情心和謙遜,包括在來自不同背景的政治精英中加強同情心和謙遜,或者將最優秀和最聰明的人送到貧困地區作為培訓的一部分,最重要的是,促進經濟平等,從而關閉 精英與大眾之間的差距。 在選擇過程中應針對不同情況,尋求不同的優點。 為此,還需要有足夠的言論自由,允許公開討論和實驗,通過不同渠道吸引具有不同優點的人。 同樣重要的是,中央政府需要能夠將一個地區的成功實驗付諸全國實踐。

第三個問題是合法性。 貝爾認為,一人一票並不是合法性的唯一來源。 在非民主國家,可能還有其他合法性來源。 一是民族主義。 中共所使用的民族主義是基於怨恨的,告訴人們中國是如何被西方羞辱並被中共拯救的。 這種民族主義可能是有毒的,它最近已經轉變為一種植根於重新擁抱傳統的基於自豪感的民族主義,盡管還不是完全。 第二個來源是性能。 但這是有風險的,並不能保證穩定,因為如果中國經濟惡化,中共的合法性就會受到威脅,而且經濟發展總是帶來民主化的壓力。 第三個來源是對政治賢能政治內在價值的認識。 一個問題是那些在精英選拔過程中失敗的人的不滿。

在傳統中國,那些未能躋身精英政治階梯頂端的人仍然可以在當地社區中享有社會和政治角色,從而被吸收到體製中,貝爾對此表示歡迎。 對於那些不在精英體製內的人的價值也應該有更強烈的認識。 人們更多的參與也有幫助。 “最終,唯一的方法是毫無疑問地表明人民支持政治賢能政治。換句話說,民主可能是使賢能政治合法化所必需的”(150)。

因此,為了捍衛現實世界的賢能政治,貝爾被引導討論民主與賢能政治的調和,進而引發對三種理想模式的討論。 第一種模式是在選民層麵將民主和精英結合起來,即多元化投票,這是密爾提出的,李光耀建議的。 但得票較少的選民會感到受到侮辱,而多數投票可能會延續得票較多的選民的統治地位,從而導致腐敗,因為政客會給自己的同胞更多的選票,並對擁有額外選票的人給予特殊的照顧。 確定誰應該獲得多少票的客觀可靠的程序也難以實現。

第二種模式是民主和精英政治的混合體,可以通過帶有“精英”眾議院的兩院製結構來實施,這是貝爾本人以前倡導的模式。 他討論了孫中山、弗裏德裏希·哈耶克、江青以及英國上議院的建議,並認為,當人們通過一個人獲得一種賦權感時,精英議院將被民選議院所掩蓋。 -一人一票。 東亞社會不能把賭注押在精英統治的傳統上,因為日本、韓國和台灣都接受了選舉民主,而不是儒家混合政權。

第三種模式是底層民主,頂層精英管理(通過第二章討論的選擇)。 在結束語中,貝爾還增加了一個中間層次,允許進行精英政治和民主結合的實驗。 他將這種三層結構稱為中國模式。 但為了讓高層的精英管理發揮作用,潛在的候選人在經曆長期的培訓時,需要保證他們的培訓能夠得到回報。 這意味著一黨執政是一個前提。 那麽,這種精英政治的合法性問題最終隻能通過全民公決來解決,公投可以使這個政權在很長一段時間內(比如50年)保持合法性,直到下一次全民公投。

在結束語中,貝爾首先討論了中國模式在現實中的缺陷,並提出了糾正的方法。 然後他猜測這個模型是否可以出口。 作為一個優秀的社群主義者,他認為這種模式植根於曆史、文化,而且中國政府非常強大,所以也許隻能部分輸出。 他還認為,為了讓中國成為世界其他國家的榜樣,中國政府需要少一些壓迫,多一些寬容。 除了以儒家思想取代共產主義之外,他還建議中共言出必行,即改名為“中華賢能聯盟”。 網上還有兩個附錄。 其中之一是和諧指數,根據社會和諧的因素對國家進行排名,這是極具創新性和挑戰性的。

如前所述,貝爾的中國模式是基於對中國傳統政權、當代中國政權和儒家思想的觀察。 這些觀察的範圍令人印象深刻,並且常常提供有趣的觀點,但其中許多觀點存在爭議也是很自然的。 此外,貝爾為了呈現中國模式而采用的資源的多樣性也導致了這些資源是否可以用來呈現一致的畫麵的問題。 最重要的是,存在將規範性建議與當代中國政權表麵上的成功過於緊密地結合起來的危險。 他有理由這樣做。 正如他承認的那樣,他“受到批評者的無情攻擊,被指控為從中共的辯護者到高盛(我妻子的雇主)的代理人”(12),這也是他寫一本書的動機,提供詳細的內容 以及細致入微的論證。

但這本書也遭到了(一些)批評家的類似指控的無情猛烈攻擊。 這些批評家中有許多聽起來像是空想家。 他們對所謂的自由民主開放社會的信仰不允許公開討論。 對他們來說,任何敢於挑戰自由民主的人,要麽是愚蠢的,要麽是邪惡的。 他們欠我們一個解釋,為什麽西方在很多方麵都失敗了,而中國卻做得相對較好。 此外,貝爾並沒有描繪出一幅純粹的中國美好圖景,他還對中國政權提出了批評。 盡管如此,我覺得貝爾對中國現政權的讚揚太多,而對批評的批評卻不夠。 在批評自由民主的曆史終結觀點的同時,他本人似乎認為,中國將在目前的中國政權及其目前的政治方式下繼續取得成功。 我沒那麽樂觀。

我與貝爾分享了他對當代自由民主的許多批評以及他的許多規範性建議。 但他的一些想法似乎有些片麵。 例如,他認為一黨專政對於選賢任能至關重要,但我認為關鍵實際上在於,當一個政黨不執政時,培養中的賢能人士能夠找到有意義的工作,而這需要不同的渠道。 政治才華和他們在社會中的流動性——這是美國社會確實提供的,也是中國當局最近一直在呼籲的。 此外,他聲稱美國聯邦製不會像他的中國模式中的中層實驗那樣有效,這對我來說聽起來很武斷。 至於一般的方法論,我認為更安全的做法是回到一兩位儒家思想家或儒家文本,梳理出他們所主張的政治模式,將其更新到當代環境,然後捍衛其可取性。 傳統中國的其他儒家文本和實踐隻有在可能說明這一模式時才應使用。

在此基礎上,我捍衛了一種混合模式,其中有法治和基本自由,底層有純粹的選舉民主,中間有準自治(這在中國傳統的中央集權政府中被儒家所表述) 支持“封建主義”),並將民主與精英政治結合起來。 該模型基於一套連貫的儒家思想(主要來自孟子),並且由於其規範性而不受現實世界政權的興衰影響。 貝爾批評了這樣一個政權的生存能力,認為頂層的民主因素最終將侵蝕精英政治。 但他自己的中國模式也必須從每50年左右進行一次的公投中獲得合法性。 這種安排可能會受到挑戰,尤其是當這種模式不斷失敗時。 貝爾的回答是,績效並不是合法性的穩定基礎,而教育會有所幫助。 但為什麽我們不能教育人們看到混合政權的美妙之處呢? 是的,即使是東亞國家也走上了純粹的選舉民主之路,但這也許是因為選舉民主似乎是唯一的贏家。 但風向有所轉變,人們有望以開放的態度尋找更好的模型。 中國模式是一種可能的候選者,但我指的並不是一種基於現實世界的當代中國政權的模式,而是基於孟子和其他儒家哲學家所設想的模式。

[1] 北京大學的校友,包括我自己,很快就會帶著輕蔑和自以為是的態度指出,這正是清華大學的典型特征,因為這是一所培養技術官僚和野心家的工科學校。

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The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy 

https://www.amazon.ca/China-Model-Political-Meritocracy-Democracy/dp/0691173044

By Daniel A. Bell  Sept. 6 2016

How China's political model could prove to be a viable alternative to Western democracy

Westerners tend to divide the political world into "good" democracies and “bad” authoritarian regimes. But the Chinese political model does not fit neatly in either category. Over the past three decades, China has evolved a political system that can best be described as “political meritocracy.” The China Model seeks to understand the ideals and the reality of this unique political system. How do the ideals of political meritocracy set the standard for evaluating political progress (and regress) in China? How can China avoid the disadvantages of political meritocracy? And how can political meritocracy best be combined with democracy? Daniel Bell answers these questions and more.

Opening with a critique of “one person, one vote” as a way of choosing top leaders, Bell argues that Chinese-style political meritocracy can help to remedy the key flaws of electoral democracy. He discusses the advantages and pitfalls of political meritocracy, distinguishes between different ways of combining meritocracy and democracy, and argues that China has evolved a model of democratic meritocracy that is morally desirable and politically stable. Bell summarizes and evaluates the “China model”―meritocracy at the top, experimentation in the middle, and democracy at the bottom―and its implications for the rest of the world.

A timely and original book that will stir up interest and debate, The China Model looks at a political system that not only has had a long history in China, but could prove to be the most important political development of the twenty-first century.

Review The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy

https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-china-model-political-meritocracy-and-the-limits-of-democracy/

Daniel A. Bell, The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2015, 318pp., $29.95 (hbk), ISBN 9780691166452.

Reviewed by Tongdong Bai, Fudan University

2016.01.07

In Daniel A. Bell's writings, there seem to be two Bells, Bell the political theorist and Bell the political observer. This duality may have had something to do with his communitarianism, which, although a philosophical view, emphasizes the particularities of community, history, and culture. I take myself to be a political philosopher in a traditional sense, focused on the universal or the universalizable. Thus, I can appreciate much more of Bell the political philosopher, although Bell the political observer, with in-depth exposure to both the West and East Asia (both theories and practices) and sometimes with a contrarian bent, can often offer new perspectives on politics and culture that are interesting and thought-provoking.

A common theme of Bell's writings is to challenge the belief that liberal democracy is the end of history and to propose alternatives. What is new in this book is that he goes further down the "particularist" road. The last book of his I reviewed was Beyond Liberal Democracy: Political Thinking for an East Asian Context. The main title sounds universalist, while it is only the subtitle that suggests a particularist leaning. The title of his new book reverses this order. Here is why:

my earlier writings on political meritocracy tended to be inspired more by Confucian philosophy than by actual politics. Over the past few years, I came to realize that China's political system has meritocratic characteristics, if only because my own high-achieving students at Tsinghua University were being increasingly recruited in the CCP. (12)[1]

Thus, in this book, instead of offering a Confucianism-based alternative of governance, he proposes one based on the contemporary Chinese regime. For him, the latter has features from both traditional Chinese regimes and Confucian classics. He uses materials from all these sources, but the main emphasis is on contemporary Chinese governmental practices.

Although the mainstream belief is still that liberal democracy is the best possible model of governance, both the failures in the West and the successes of China have given momentum to questioning this belief, which Bell acknowledges in the Introduction. He then sets out to defend what he calls political meritocracy. He distinguishes this from the existing meritocracy in liberal democracies, in which experts are selected to work in narrowly defined domains and in a neutral manner, and also from economic meritocracy, which follows the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution" (5). On the economic issues, Bell is firmly on the left with political theorists such as John Rawls and even the "higher communism" that follows the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs" (5).

In order to make space for political meritocracy, Bell has to challenge the tenet that democracy is the least bad regime. Political realists, such as Samuel Huntington, and even the party conservatives in China, "warn us that democracy cannot readily be established in poor, developing countries" (15), but the issue is really about timing, not about the desirability of democratization.  By contrast, in Chapter 1, Bell points out "four key problems with electoral democracy: the tyranny of the majority, the tyranny of the minority, the tyranny of the voting community, and the tyranny of competitive individualists" (20). By the first tyranny, he means that the majority of citizens, which has a decisive role in political decision-making, is ignorant of politics, and rationally so. One might argue that in spite of this ignorance, the collective wisdom of the voters should be trusted, but Bell argues that the collective wisdom is wisdom only if the participants are already informed. Unfortunately, the political reality is that those who deliberate on politics don't participate in it, and those who participate in it don't deliberate on it. You could defend one-person-one-vote by arguing that it is a fair procedure, but Bell's retort is: why don't we just flip a coin? Our rejection of this procedure indicates that we do care about desirable consequences, which the majority of ignorant voters doesn't deliver. The second problem is the dominance of the super rich that results from increasing economic inequality. In spite of the lack of economic and political mobility, Americans somehow manage to believe the opposite, which, to Bell, is but an illusion. The third problem is that voters of a state can decide about affairs that have repercussions beyond the state and its citizens, such as climate change and torture of enemy combatants and alleged terrorists. The last problem derives from Bell's belief that the fierce individualist competition in democratic politics is the root cause of smear campaigns and partisan politics, so that the value of harmony, which is taken seriously by Confucianism and Confucian states, is ignored.

Bell suggests that the contemporary Chinese regime, especially its meritocracy, may address some of the problems of electoral democracy. But an issue is whether the Chinese regime would be better than electoral democracy, even if it did better address these problems. But Bell considers discussing the Chinese regime (maybe in a slightly idealized form) worthwhile for the following reasons. First, from Chapter 2, we can at least see that electoral democracy is not clearly better than other alternatives. Second, the Chinese regime offers a real-world model of meritocracy rather than some imagined regime that may be easily dismissed as unrealistic. Third, China's one-party rule is not about to collapse soon, and to discuss its merits and defects can at least help understand and improve on Chinese politics, which has clear benefits.

In Chapter 2, Bell discusses an issue key to meritocracy: how to select leaders on the basis of their merits. There are a lot of discussions of leadership in business, but they don't fully apply to the political case because leaders in business tend to have simpler goals (making profit being the most important) than leaders in politics. One method of selection Bell suggests is an updated form of traditional Chinese keju, "the public service examinations (misleadingly translated as 'civil service examinations')" (78), which tends to focus on the candidate's intellectual capacity. The social skills of political leaders also matter but are hard to measure. Bell suggests that we should take seriously traits that reveal one's social skills, such as age and gender. Another political merit is virtue. Tests on classics that are full of the celebration of virtues help because these classics could tacitly shape one's character. War heroes or those who devote themselves to non-profit organizations also tend to be virtuous. Most importantly, an evaluation by peers could be a very good way to measure one's virtues.

In Chapter 3, Bell deals with a few problems with political meritocracy and proposes solutions. The first issue is corruption, and his solutions include the rule of law, freedom of speech, law enforcement, the market-based salary system, and moral cultivation. The last item has also been emphasized by some Chinese communists, but according to Bell, this came from the Confucian tradition rather than the Marxist tradition, which doesn't pay much attention to moral cultivation. To Bell's regret, "the party has yet to take the formal step of officially replacing communism with Confucianism" (124).

The second issue is ossification, and as examples, he mentions the problem that the political elites in Singapore and France lack sympathy and are full of arrogance toward the masses. The solutions he proposes are strengthening sympathy and humility, including in the political elites those from different backgrounds or sending the best and the brightest to poor regions for a few years as part of their training, and most importantly, promoting economic equality that would close the gap between the elites and the masses. Different merits should be sought in the selection procedure for different situations. For this to happen, there also needs to be sufficient freedom of speech to allow open discussions and experiments in attracting people with different kinds of merits through different channels. Equally important, the central government needs to be able to put successful experiments from one region into national practice.

The third issue is legitimacy. Bell argues that one-person-one-vote is not the only source of legitimacy. In non-democracies, there can be other sources of legitimacy. One is nationalism. The nationalism the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has used is resentment-based, telling the people how China was humiliated by the West and has been saved by the CCP. This nationalism can be toxic, and it has recently been transformed, though not completely, into a pride-based nationalism that is rooted in the re-embrace of traditions. The second source is performance. But this is risky and doesn't guarantee stability because the CCP's legitimacy will be in danger if the Chinese economy goes bad and because economic development has always led to pressure for democratization. The third source is the recognition of the inner worth of political meritocracy. A problem with this is the discontent of those who fail in the meritocratic selection process. In traditional China, those who failed to make to the top of the meritocratic ladder could still enjoy social and political roles in local communities and were thus absorbed into the system, which Bell welcomes. There should also be a stronger recognition of the value of those who are not in the meritocratic system. More participation by the people helps as well. "Ultimately, the only way is to show without a shadow of doubt that the people support political meritocracy. In other words, democracy may be necessary to legitimize meritocracy" (150).

Therefore, in order to defend the real-world political meritocracy, Bell is led to discuss the reconciliation between democracy and meritocracy, which then leads to the discussion of three ideal models. The first model is to combine democracy and meritocracy at the level of voters, meaning plural voting, which was proposed by Mill and suggested by Lee Kuan Yew. But voters with fewer votes would feel insulted, and plural voting may perpetuate the dominance of those with more votes and thus lead to corruption, for politicians would give extra votes to their own kind and would do special favors to those with extra votes. An objective and reliable procedure to determine who should get how many votes is also elusive.

The second model is a hybrid of democracy and meritocracy, which can be implemented by a bicameral structure with a house of "meritocrats," a model Bell himself championed before. He discusses the proposals made by Sun Yat-sen, Friedrich Hayek, and Jiang Qing, as well as the English House of Lords, and argues that the meritocratic house will be overshadowed by the democratically elected house when people enjoy a sense of empowerment through one-person-one-vote. East Asian societies cannot bet on the meritocratic heritage because Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have all embraced electoral democracy instead of a Confucian hybrid regime.

The third model is democracy on the bottom, and meritocracy on top (through selections that are discussed in Chapter 2).  In the Concluding Remarks, Bell also adds a middle level that allows experiments in combining meritocracy and democracy.  He calls this three-level structure the China model. But in order for meritocracy on top to work, the potential candidates, when going through a long period of training, need guarantees that their training will be rewarded. This means that one-party rule is a pre-condition. Then, the problem of the legitimacy of such a meritocracy can only be ultimately solved by a referendum that can render legitimacy to this regime for a long period of time (say, 50 years) until the next referendum.

In the Concluding Remarks, Bell first discusses the defects of the China model in reality, and suggests ways to correct them. Then he speculates on whether this model can be exported. Being a good communitarian, he thinks that this model is rooted in history, culture, and the fact that the Chinese government is very powerful, and so maybe it can only be exported partially. He also argues that for China to be a model for the rest of the world, the Chinese government needs to be less oppressive and more tolerant. In addition to the replacement of communism with Confucianism, he also suggests that the CCP talk the talk, that is, change its name to "the Chinese Meritocratic Union." There are also two appendixes available on line. One of them is a Harmony Index that ranks countries according to factors that would make a society harmonious, which is extremely innovative and provocative.

As mentioned earlier, Bell's China model is based on observations of traditional Chinese regimes, the contemporary Chinese regime, and Confucian ideas. The scope of these  observations is impressive and they often offer interesting perspectives, but it is only natural that many of them are controversial. Moreover, the diversity of the sources Bell draws from in order to present the China model also leads to the issue of whether these sources can be used to present a consistent picture. Most importantly, there is a danger of marrying one's normative proposal too closely to the apparent success of the contemporary Chinese regime. He has reasons to do so. As he acknowledges, he was "ruthless savaged by critics, accused of being everything from an apologist for the CCP to an agent for Goldman Sachs (my wife's employer)" (12), which is a motive for him to write a book offering detailed and nuanced argumentation.

But this book has also been ruthlessly savaged by (some) critics with similar accusations. Many of these critics sound like ideologues. Their belief in the alleged open society of liberal democracy is closed to open discussions. To them, anyone who dares to challenge the desirability of liberal democracy must be either foolish or evil. They owe us an explanation about why the West has been failing in so many fronts, and China has been doing relatively well. Moreover, Bell is not painting a purely rosy picture of China, and he offers critical remarks on the Chinese regime. Nonetheless, I feel that Bell gives too much credit to the present Chinese regime and not enough to criticisms of it. While criticizing the end-of-history view about liberal democracy, he himself seems to think that China will continue to be successful under the present Chinese regime, with its present way of doing politics. I am not that optimistic.

I share with Bell many of his criticisms of contemporary liberal democracy and many of his normative proposals. But some of his ideas seem somewhat one-sided. For example, he argues that to have one-party-rule is essential to meritocratic selection, but I think the key is really that when one's party is not in power, the meritocrat-in-training can find meaningful employment, which presupposes different channels for the politically talented and their mobility in society -- something American society does offer and the Chinese authority has been calling for recently. Also, his claim that American federalism wouldn't work as well as the middle-level experimentation in his China model sounds arbitrary to me. As for the general methodology, I think that a safer ground is to go back to one or two Confucian thinkers or texts, tease out the political models they would advocate, update them to the contemporary settings, and then defend their desirability. Other Confucian texts and practices in traditional China should only be used when they are possible illustrations of this model.

On this basis, I have defended a hybrid model in which, with the rule of law and basic liberties, there is pure electoral democracy at the bottom, quasi-autonomy in the middle (which, in traditional Chinese centralized government, is expressed by Confucians' support to "feudalism"), and the combination of democracy and meritocracy on top. This model is based on a coherent set of Confucian ideas (mostly from Mencius) and is insulated from the ups and downs of a real-world regime thanks to its normative nature. Bell criticizes the viability of such a regime by arguing that the democratic element on top will eventually erode the meritocratic one. But his own China model also has to derive legitimacy from a referendum that takes place every 50 years or so. This arrangement can be challenged, especially when this model keeps failing. Bell's answer is that performance is not a stable ground for legitimacy, and education helps. But then why can't we educate people to see the beauty of the hybrid regime on top? Yes, even East Asian countries have gone down the road of pure electoral democracy, but maybe this is because electoral democracy has appeared to be the sole winner. But the wind has turned a bit, and there is a hope for an open-minded search for better models. The China model is one possible candidate, but by that, I don't mean one based on the real-world contemporary Chinese regime, but on the one envisioned by Mencius and other Confucian philosophers.

[1] Alums from Peking University, myself included, would be quick to point out, with scorn and self-righteousness, that this is just typical of Tsinghua, an engineering school that produces technocrats and careerists.

 

簡介(第 1-13 頁)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.5

2013 年 10 月,一段來源不明的精美卡通視頻在網上瘋傳,兩周內觀看次數超過一千萬。該視頻在美國聯邦政府關閉時發布,對比了不同國家領導人的選擇。 它描繪了美國總統巴拉克·奧巴馬(Barack Obama)在數億美元競選資金的幫助下迅速崛起,並以一人一票的方式在全國範圍內的全國選舉中取得勝利。 這個過程被稱為“民主”。 它還描繪了習近平主席數十年來登上中國權力頂峰的曆程:他的……

第一章 民主是最不壞的政治製度嗎?(第 14-62 頁)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.6

現代西方社會是多元化的,這是不言而喻的。 我們對所有事情都爭論不休,但似乎對任何事情都沒有達成一致。 事實上,我們確實同意一件事:我們應該通過一人一票來選擇我們的政治領導人。 選舉民主在現代西方社會中幾乎占據了神聖的地位。 我們可以質疑對上帝的信仰,而不會被指責為失去了道德指南針,但同樣的寬容並不適用於那些質疑一個人、一票的信仰的人; 他們幾乎不可避免地被貼上了“壞”獨裁政權的辯護者的標簽。

第二章論賢能政治中優秀領導人的選拔(第63-109頁)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.7

20世紀90年代初,一些亞洲官員及其支持者提出了“亞洲價值觀”的概念,主張亞洲社會不應采用自由民主的政治價值觀和做法。 正如新加坡前總理李光耀所說:“亞洲人毫不懷疑,一個社會利益優先於個人利益的社會比美國的個人主義更適合他們。” 此類主張之所以引起國際關注,主要是因為東方 亞洲領導人似乎正在主持聯合國人類發展報告所稱的“二十世紀最持續的發展奇跡……

第三章政治精英政治出了什麽問題(第110-150頁)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.8

從理論上講,政治賢能政治聽起來是個好主意。 當然,政治製度的設計應該選擇能力和德行優越的統治者。 誰願意被無能和腐敗的統治者統治? 但如果在一個由具有不同價值觀和利益的不完美的人組成的世界中爭奪稀缺資源,那麽好的想法可能會是災難性的。 大躍進似乎是個好主意——讓我們跳過競爭性的個人主義資本主義,直接進入一個物質豐富、人人平等的世界——但它導致了一場饑荒,導致數千萬人……

第四章民主精英政治的三種模式(第151-178頁)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.9

政治賢能政治—即政治製度應該旨在選擇和提拔具有卓越能力和美德的領導人的想法——乍一聽聽起來有點可疑。柏拉圖和孔子都主張一種有效地將多數人排除在政治權力之外的政治賢能政治形式。然而,如今沒有人主張建立一個純粹的精英政治共同體。 一方麵,很難說服人們他們應該完全被排除在政治權力之外。柏拉圖本人認識到有必要傳播一個“崇高的謊言”,即守護者應該擁有絕對的權力,因為他們的靈魂裏有黃金,不像……

結論性思考:實現中國模式(第179-198頁)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.10

"中國模式”這個詞被廣泛用來描述20世紀70年代末改革開放以來中國的經濟發展和治理方式。 雖然這個詞對不同的人有不同的含義,但它通常指的是中國在強調政治穩定高於一切的威權一黨國家的保護傘下建立自由市場資本主義的方法。 簡而言之,中國模式是經濟自由和政治壓迫的結合體。²但試圖從這兩個特征來理解當代中國是極具誤導性的。 作為一種經濟模式,中國確實...

《賢能政治》

副標題: 為什麽尚賢製比選舉民主製更適合中國
原作名: The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy
作者: [加] 貝淡寧 / Daniel A. Bell 譯者: 吳萬偉 出版年: 2016-9-16 頁數: 459 定價: 69

內容簡介

選舉民主製是判斷中國政治進步的標準嗎?一人一票的選舉民主為何很難遴選出優秀的領導者?中國的尚賢製能夠給西方社會帶來哪些啟示?政治尚賢製怎樣與民主製有機地結合起來?這是一部係統闡釋政治尚賢製這一中國政治模式的開山之作,同時也是一部深入探索西方民主製之外的政治治理模式的著作。

在本書中,全球著名政治學者貝淡寧認為,中國選賢任能的政治尚賢製有著深遠的曆史淵源,影響了過去幾十年的社會變革,也比較適合麵臨複雜政治、社會和經濟問題的大國。民意調查也表明,政治尚賢製獲得了充分的民眾支持。因此,政治尚賢製在中國是選舉民主製的一種替代選擇。

長久以來,學界、政界和輿論界一直以民主製的視角研判中國的政治治理製度,認為隻有以一人一票為基礎的選舉製度是好的,其他一切政治體製都是專製統治。然而在當前諸多實行選舉製的國家中,財富和資本集團的利益都掌控著不成比例的權力,美國的大選甚至被稱為“一美元一票”,而非一人一票。貝淡寧認為,中國的政治尚賢製不僅能選拔出能力超群的領導者,而且如此選拔出的領導者更具長遠眼光和全局意識,能夠做出更加具有說服力的政治決斷。政治尚賢製比西方的民主製更適合像中國這樣的大國,它能夠有效規避民主選舉製的主要缺陷。

貝淡寧還試圖用政治尚賢製的理想來比照中國的現實,認為中國要真正實現在道德上可取、政治上穩定的尚賢製度,還有很長的一段路要走。本書最後諫言,隻有真正做到“上層尚賢,中間實驗和基層民主”,中國模式的賢能政治才能成為21世紀備受全球矚目的政治發展模式。

編輯推薦

《賢能政治:為什麽尚賢製比選舉民主製更適合中國》榮獲“《金融時報》2015年年度圖書”和“《衛報》2015年年度zui佳假日圖書”。全球著名政治學者首次探討中西方政治模式的集大成之作。該書獲得弗蘭西斯•福山、鄭永年、約瑟夫•奈、餘永定、潘維、閻學通、張維為等數十位中外專家聯名推薦。英文原版出版後隨即得到廣泛關注和推薦,是將有可能為中西方政府官員選拔製度提供參考的權威之作。

名人推薦

中國是否創立了真正新穎的治理模式?這個模式運行效果如何?這些都是關鍵的問題。貝淡寧對中國模式的評估在許多讀者看來是積極的、樂觀的,評價之高令人吃驚。不過,論證過程謹慎紮實,值得任何一位研究當今中國的讀者認真閱讀和思考。

詹姆斯•法洛斯(James Fallows)

《中國空降兵》的作者

對許多西方讀者來說,貝淡寧的書很難讓人消化,因為它質疑“根本真理”。對中國讀者來說,貝淡寧的書使其相信至少有些西方人理解他們。多個世紀以來,中國人最看重的就是其考試製度,因為它既能選拔賢能又比較客觀。這種對個人成就的關注總是與為共同體服務的道德義務結合起來。《賢能政治》解釋了這種雙重性如何在當代中國繼續運行。

楊榮文

新加坡前任外交部部長

在西方國家,連對一人一票原則的質疑都可能招來詛咒,但貝淡寧恰恰這樣做了。他根據儒家的精神,強烈支持賢能政治,認為民主選舉不能解決我們最緊迫的問題。我們可以從這本極具挑釁性的書中學到很多東西。

馬蒂亞斯•裏斯(Mattias Risse)

哈佛大學教授

很少有像這本書這樣分析如此透徹、話題如此及時、思考與當今現實如此相關的著作。貝淡寧將其在西方接受的學術智慧訓練和在中國的教學和研究經驗結合起來,解釋了中國獨特的政治尚賢製的發展。任何一位對中國感興趣和關心西方民主發展的人都應該閱讀一下這本讓人大開眼界的著作。

鄭永年

新加坡國立大學東亞研究所所長

《賢能政治》一書非常及時,獨創性強而且十分重要。基於作者對當今政治理論的精煉把握和對中國不斷變化的政治製度的多種特征的深刻認識,這本書將成為學習政治的學生、漢學家和所有對中國崛起感興趣的人爭相閱讀的暢銷書。

尤銳 (Yuri Pines)

《永遠的帝國》的作者

媒體推薦

貝淡寧用通俗流暢的文筆提出了一個挑戰傳統思想的問題—民主還是尚賢。他利用其在當代中國的教學和生活經驗帶領讀者回顧和思考政治哲學中一些最根本的問題。我發現貝淡寧提出的問題發人深省,引人入勝。

吉迪恩•拉赫曼(Gideon Rachman)

《金融時報》

貝淡寧寫了一本引人入勝的著作。思想開放的讀者會發現這本書對中國政治有充滿智慧的了解,同樣寶貴的是它會迫使讀者反思自己對民主的忠誠。《賢能政治》不僅僅是為了那些想要更好地了解中國的人寫的。它讓我重新思考西方治理體係有哪些優勢和劣勢。這是一本可讀性很強的書,讓人獲益良多。

克萊夫•克魯克(Clive Crook)

彭博新聞社

貝淡寧以令人信服的論據非常有意義地論述了,為什麽外部世界應該更加深刻地思考中國在治理國家方麵的實踐。這本書的文筆清晰、流暢、可讀性強。

克裏•布朗(Kerry Brown)

貝淡寧:用賢能政治衡量中國體製更合適

來源:環球時報 2015-1-12

儒家文化複興為中國發展提供道德支撐

  過去30多年來,中國最引人矚目的文化變革就是傳統的複興。這種複興既是精心策劃的結果,也有自發的因素。20世紀尤其1949年以來,文化呈現出來的一個主要方麵就是反傳統主義。再往前溯,及至1919年“五四運動”甚至之前,無論金融精英、自由人士、馬克思主義者還是無政府主義者,均認為中國貧窮落後,根源之一便是落後的傳統文化。

  但過去30年來,中國以及韓國等其他擁有儒家文化傳統的東亞國家經曆了一場對傳統的戲劇性再評估。在此期間,這一地區經濟增長迅猛,貧困人口大幅縮減,同時又一直保持著和平穩定。而當人們舉目四望、探尋這些國家有何共同點時,答案之一就是它們都繼承了儒家傳統。盡管過去的敘事基本都是儒家文化阻礙了現代化和經濟增長,但現在很多人都認為:儒家文化實際上發揮了促進作用。

  我們正在目睹一種更具曆史色彩和人文特征的視角的回歸,它更強調教育,注重跨越代際的大家庭倫理。延及政治領域,這種儒家視角促進了有關中國賢能政治傳統的價值重估。長期以來,中國人一直認為政治體製的關鍵在於選拔和擢升具有較強能力、道德品質、社會文化技能並能帶領國家前進的領導者。這種視角雖有儒家根源,但現在已然經曆現代化的演變,變成中國以及韓國、日本等其他東亞國家經濟發展戰略的核心。盡管儒家思想在“文化大革命”期間遭到批判,但它現在再次回到舞台中央。如今,儒家核心價值的推廣和促進已不僅限於政治治理層麵,商業和非盈利性行業也都在這樣做。

  賢能政治的發揚還與社會飽受金錢主義的負麵影響有關。追逐財富使得人們變得更趨個人主義,脫離更高的理想追求。因此,中國政府層麵以及很多知識分子都希望提升社會的責任感,複興儒家文化正好服務於這一目標。儒家關乎道德和個人責任,無論對於教育體係還是領導者的培養都能提供道德支撐。

賢能政治是更適合中國語境的衡量標準

  當我們試圖分析和理解中國時,西方的政治術語很有誤導性,因其傾向於將世界劃分為好的民主體製和壞的集權體製,而中國往往被歸為後者。但事實上,中國有著很大不同,雖然中國的政治體製確有某些威權傾向,但也具有很強的民主特征。過去30年來,世人見證了中國進行了前所未有的改革開放,並且願意談論自身存在的問題。筆者在之前出版的著作中使用“垂直民主賢能政治”概念來闡釋中國的模式:基層層麵充分展現了民主的價值;越往政治決策鏈的上層追溯,其領導者的擢升就越呈現出賢能政治的特點。

  雖然在中國的理想與現實之間仍有差距,但這種賢能政治標準已在過去30年中激發了備受矚目的政治改革。筆者認為,就政治進步或倒退的評判標準而言,中國式賢能政治是一個完全勝任的模式。尤其在中國的語境下,賢能政治在有關較長時期內政治進步與否的考察中是比西式自由民主更好的標準。雖然這種看法在中國之外引發一定程度的爭議,但在中國內部,強調賢能政治確是知識界和改革派領導者的主流認知。

  歸根結底,筆者認為有關政治進步與否的評判並不存在一個放之四海而皆準的標準,“怎樣才算是良好政治社會”這個問題有著雖然各自不同但又都趨於合理的解釋。其實從柏拉圖開始,“美好社會”就存在著各種相互競爭的模式或版本。美國用於衡量政治進步和改革的標準,源自美國憲法所蘊含的民主理想,並且得到其立國先賢們的擁護和標榜。這套標準對美國曆史上的許多政治活動都產生了巨大影響。

  雖然在美國的理想和現實之間也存在巨大落差,但其評價現實的標準終究還是源自美國文化中的主流政治理念。對於有著複雜政治哲學曆史和理念的中國而言,道理也是如此。這些理念可追溯至始自孔孟時代、貫穿整個中國曆史的有關賢能政治的爭鳴和辯論。中國的思想家們潛心思考如何選拔能幹而且道德高尚的政治領導者以及何種能力和德行最為重要,中國人思索並嚐試各種領導者選拔機製,這種傳統一直延續到今天。過去30多年來,中國政治領導層的選拔一般是先從公務員考試開始,接著對其在較低層級政府部門的表現加以評估,隻有在各行政層級積累了豐富經驗,才有可能被拔擢到更高層。這種方式與中國曆史上的很多時候相似。

中美應允許對方在政治體製上存在差異

  筆者始終認為,根植於中國文化的這些核心政治理念應該成為評估中國政治進步與否的標準,雖然它們與美國信奉的那套自由主義理念不同。理想與現實之間總有巨大落差,這一點從古至今概莫能外,但其中更根本的問題還是在於把什麽當作標準。

  這是中國政府和知識界頗為關心的問題。無論他們喜歡與否,中國的發展都已“震撼世界”,中國也必須在塑造世界方麵發揮更加積極的作用,問題在於其是否能以既促進國際和平又容納分歧的方式發揮作用。絕大多數中國人都認為,世界大國擁有不同形式的政府,不應強製推行任何單一治理模式。在這方麵,筆者更為擔心的其實是美國。因為美國不僅宣稱其民主模式是它自身的最佳選擇,同時認為這也應是其他國家和地區的最佳模式。一些美國人甚至想當然地認為除此之外的其他政治體製都是非法的。這種態度當然會讓很多致力於建設好政府的中國人感到反感甚或不滿。他們會想:輪的著你這個隻有幾百年曆史的國家來教我構建什麽樣的政治體製麽?你們已被一部根本無法應對現代挑戰的憲法弄得束手束腳了。

  筆者認為,美中雙方應該求同存異,既在共同關注的領域攜手努力,也要容許紮根在不同政治語境下的兩種政治體製之間存在差異。

  (作者是清華大學哲學係教授,本文由韓國慶熙大學副教授、亞洲研究所所長貝一明采訪)

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