新教傳教士與近代中國（1807-1953）
十九世紀早期，說英語的國家裏發生了宗教大複興（常被稱為第二次大覺醒），因此促進了海外的宣教，於是英美國家的不少傳教士到世界許多國家和地區去傳播基督教的信仰。十九世紀被稱為宣教的偉大世紀。
1807年，第一位新教傳教士馬禮遜進入中國，之後陸陸續續有更多的傳教士及他們的妻子和兒女來到中國。傳教士剛入中國的時候，清朝采取的依然是閉關鎖國的政策，所以他們隻能逗留在澳門與廣州十三行。1842年簽訂條約之後，傳教士們能夠住在五個通商口岸。1860年第二次鴉片戰爭之後，傳教士得以進入內陸。
在接下來的幾十年內，新教的傳教事業發展很迅速。1860年隻有60位新教傳教士，到1900年已經有2500位傳教士（包括他們的妻子兒女），其中1400位來自英國，1000位來自美國，100位來自歐洲，主要是北歐國家[1]。到1920年代，新教的傳教事業達到頂峰，之後由於中國內部的戰爭和動蕩，情況不如以前。到1953年，所有在華新教傳教士被驅逐出境。
Peter Parker, M.D.
伯駕（1804年6月18日－1888年1月10日），原名彼得·帕克（Peter Parker），美國麻省人，是美國早期來華傳教士、醫師、外交官。鴉片戰爭時期曾參與《望廈條約》的談判，後擔任過美國駐華公使。[1][2][3][4]
1831年伯駕在耶魯大學獲得學士學位，1834年獲得醫學博士學位，隨後進入神學院，並得到傳教於中國的委派。由於他卓越的醫療技術，伯駕成為第一位在華專職醫療傳教士。因為廣州十三行不允許外國人學習漢文，他先去新加坡學習了一段時間中文，然後於1835年11月份再度返回廣州。他先在外國人駐地開了一間藥房，開始為中國人看病，他主治的大部分是眼疾。後來他的藥房擴展而成一家眼科醫院，即博濟醫院，這家醫院發展變成了今天著名的廣東中山大學中山眼科中心。
1840年，第一次鴉片戰爭爆發，伯駕關閉了博濟醫院回到了美國，兩年後他再一次回到中國，重開博濟醫院，並且增加了醫院人手和擴大了規模。伯駕將西方醫療技術帶到了中國，他醫術精湛，被譽為“用柳葉刀（即手術刀）傳福音”。
1844年，伯駕獲得委任，參與《望廈條約》的談判與簽訂。1847年，他擔任美國駐華公使代辦，1855年正式被委任為美國駐華公使。伯駕作為美國政府的代表，對華態度強硬，積極謀求擴大美國在華權益。伯駕有一句名言：“中國人不服從，就毀滅。”（Bend or Break）。第二次鴉片戰爭期間，曾呼籲美軍與英軍、法軍分占舟山、台灣、朝鮮國。出於健康原因，伯駕於1855年回到美國。但於同年，他被委任為美國派華專員，負責修訂《望廈條約》。伯駕在中國工作直到1857年，再一次由於健康原因卸任，回到美國。
此後，他常居華府，1888年去世。
相關事跡[編輯]
伯駕在大中華近代醫學史上首創多項紀錄，如割除扁桃腺（1836年）、割除膀胱結石（1844年）、使用乙醚麻醉（1847年）、采用氯彷麻醉方法（1848年）等[5]。
晚清知名外銷畫家關喬昌，為答謝博濟醫院免費收治華人，也為感謝伯駕收其侄子入讀醫校，在1836到1855年受伯駕委托，免費（僅一次畫作有收報酬）繪製了一係列病患肖像，被用作醫學生授課材料。而在舊日博濟醫院等候區，也掛有這些病人手術前後的畫像，也可能用於鼓勵病人[6]。
伯駕曾受中國林則徐便委托和袁得輝合譯瑞士法學家艾默瑞奇·德·瓦特爾的著作《萬國律例》，協助林則徐處理與英國的案件。
年表[編輯]
- 1804年出生於麻省的一個篤信基督教的家庭。
- 1831年畢業於耶魯大學，隨後進入神學院，期間得到中國傳教的委派。
- 1834年獲得醫學博士學位，並獲得牧師資格，同年到達廣州。
- 1835年，伯駕在廣州十三行內新豆欄街成立了廣州眼科醫局，被稱為“新豆欄醫局”，免費為病人治病，開始主要收治眼科名人。
- 1844年，作為美國特使的助手和翻譯，參與《望廈條約》的談判。
- 1847年成為美國政府駐華代辦，與此同時，仍然堅持行醫活動，直到1855年。
- 1855年，美國政府正式委任他為駐華全權公使。“新豆欄醫局”移交給美北長老會的嘉約翰醫生，1859年遷新址，改名為博濟醫院（Canton Hospital,PokTsai）。
- 1857年4月22日，駐華公使被列衛廉替代，回國，結束了外交官和傳教生涯。
Peter Parker (June 18, 1804 – January 10, 1888) was an American physician and a missionary who introduced Western medical techniques into Qing DynastyChina. It was said that Parker "opened China to the gospel at the point of a lancet."
Portrait of Parker by Lam Qua
Early life[edit source]
Parker was born in Framingham, Massachusetts in 1804 to an orthodox Congregational family. His parents were farmers. Parker received a B.A. degree from Yale University in 1831, and his M.D. degree from the Yale Medical School, then called Medical Institution of Yale College, in 1834. In January 1834, he completed his theological studies at Yale and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister.[1]
China[edit source]
In February 1834, Parker traveled to Canton, where he had the distinction of being the first full-time Protestant medical missionary to China. In 1835, he opened in that city the Ophthalmic Hospital, which later became the Guangzhou Boji Hospital (the Canton Hospital). Parker specialized in diseases of the eye, including cataracts, and also resected tumors. Parker also introduced Western anesthesiain the form of sulphuric ether.
Although the hospital was intended particularly for the treatment of eye diseases, it was soon found impracticable to exclude patients suffering from other maladies. Over 2,000 patients were admitted the first year. Parker often preached to the patients, and trained several Chinese students in the arts of medicine and surgery, some of whom attained considerable skill.[2]
Merchant David Olyphant of Olyphant & Co. allowed Parker to use one of his warehouses as a hospital "so that patients could come and go without annoying foreigners by passing through their hongs, or excite the observations of natives by being seen to resort to a foreigner's house, rendered it most suitable for the purpose."[3]
In 1840, on the occurrence of hostilities between England and China, the hospital was closed, and Parker returned to the United States. Returning to China in 1842, he reopened the hospital, and it was thronged as before.[2] He served as president of the Medical Missionary Society of China after his mentor Thomas Richardson Colledge. Dr. John Glasgow Kerr followed Parker in running the Medical Missionary Society Hospital.
In 1844, Parker worked as Caleb Cushing's main interpreter during the negotiations of the Treaty of Wanghia with the Qing Empire. In 1845 he became a secretary and interpreter to the new embassy from the United States, still keeping the hospital in operation. In the absence of the minister, Parker acted as chargé d'affaires. In 1855, finding his health seriously impaired, he again returned to the United States.[2]
The 1844 treaty stipulated that it could be renegotiated after 12 years, and in 1856, president Franklin Pierce sent Parker to China in order to revise the treaty and gain more concessions from the Qing Empire. Parker was unsuccessful in this endeavor. He worked in this capacity until Pierce left office. In 1857, his health again failing, he returned to the United States.[2]
Lam Qua portraits[edit source]
While in China, Parker met Lam Qua, a Western-trained Chinese painter. Parker commissioned Lam Qua to paint patients at the Canton Hospital with large tumors or other major deformities. Some of the paintings are part of a collection of Lam Qua's work held by the Peter Parker Collection[4] at the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library at Yale University. Parker left these portraits to the Pathology Department of the Yale Medical School, which later gave them to the Library.
United States[edit source]
He became a regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1868, a corporate member of the American Board in 1871, and was a delegate of the Evangelical Alliance to Russia the same year to memorialize Tsar Alexander II in behalf of religious liberty in the Baltic provinces. He was president of the Washington branch of the Evangelical Alliance in 1887.[5] He died in Washington, D.C.[6]
Writings[edit source]
Among his publications were:[2][5][6][7]
- Reports of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton (Canton, 1836–52)
- Journal of an Expedition from Singapore to Japan, an account of his visit to the Loo Choo islands and Japan in 1837 (London, 1838)
- A Statement Respecting Hospitals in China (London, 1841)
- Notes of Surgical Practice Among the Chinese (1846)
- Eulogy on Henry Wilson (Washington, D. C., 1880)
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Born in Framingham, Massachusetts in 1804, Parker was the son of a devout Christian farming family. He attended Yale University, graduating with a BA in 1831, and remained there to study theology and medicine, earning his MD in 1834. In January of the same year, he was also ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in Philadelphia.
One month later, in February 1834, Parker sailed for the Canton region in southern China, now known as the province of Guangzhou. Parker specialised in treating eye diseases, particularly cataracts, and one year after his arrival he opened the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton, as it was known in English. He also performed general surgical operations and the hospital soon started to cater for patients with other maladies. Parker and his small staff handled thousands of cases each year, treating more than 50,000 patients by the 1850s. He is also credited with introducing Western anaesthesia into China in the form of sulphuric ether.
Parker's surgical practice clearly tapped into a huge unmet need. In a series of talks to the Boston Medical Association in April 1841 he described the huge lack of medical and surgical knowledge in China. He had observed a man with his finger inserted into a live frog as a cure for a whitlow on the fingernail, and watched air being blown into the rectum of a drowned child in an attempt at resuscitation.[2]
Leading the way
In the early phase of medical missionary work, some missionaries studied medicine before going into the field to equip themselves better for living life in a remote area. For example, after earning his degree in theology, David Livingtone, the Scottish missionary and explorer of the Victorian era, studied medicine as part of his mission training. Similarly, Hudson Taylor, who was also a doctor, saw medical missions in similar terms.[3] However, Parker strongly believed that his clinical work could be the 'handmaid of religious truth'. Medicine and preaching were equally important to him and, although he held regular religious services for his patients, his hospital in Canton offered free treatment for both rich and poor. Through this he fostered tremendous goodwill amongst the local community.[4]
The Ophthalmic Hospital became the model for other medical missions around the world and, along with his colleague Dr T Colledge, Parker founded the Medical Missionary Society of Canton in 1838. The aim of the organisation was to co-ordinate the efforts of all the western hospitals springing up in the trading ports of Asia, including the small eye hospital opened by Colledge, who was a Christian working for the East India Company. By increasing the availability of free medical care for the poorest in society, Parker hoped to 'open China for the gospel with the lancet'.[5]
Peter Parker also stimulated colleagues in Britain, Scotland, and the United States to become supportive of medical mission work, and he was instrumental in founding the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society.[6] At the same time, Parker and Colledge also established the first modern medical education programme in China.
Parker travelled extensively in China but was forced to flee the country temporarily in 1840 to escape the hostilities of the Opium Wars between Great Britain and China. During this time he returned to the United States to raise funds for his work. He spoke to many religious societies, a few medical bodies, and even the United States Congress, where he preached to members of the House and Senate and lobbied legislators on the need for diplomatic relations with China.
Consequently, shortly after his return to China in 1842, he became secretary to the United States embassy and occasionally acted as charge d'affaires in the absence of the United States minister. In 1855 he was appointed commissioner at the request of the US government, a position he held until 1857, when he finally returned to the US.
Because of the relative absence of modern surgical techniques in China, Parker found himself operating on a number of patients afflicted with tumours that had been growing for as many as 30 years, resulting in major deformities. He commissioned Lam Qua, a Chinese artist, to paint the most significant cases pre-operatively. In the absence of contemporary techniques such as medical photography, they provided state of the art visual aids and, together with Parker's notes recorded in his personal journals, the portraits provide an important insight into the extent of surgical pathology in the mid-1800s, as well as the relative brutality of surgical techniques at the time.[7] Lam Qua, who became highly regarded for his skills as a portrait painter, had studied with George Chinnery, the first English painter to settle in China, and was the first Chinese portrait painter to be exhibited in the West.
His legacy
Peter Parker died in the United States in 1888, at the age of 83. On his death, Parker left the portrait collection to the Pathology Department of the Yale Medical School. They were later given to the Yale University Library where they are still held by the Peter Parker Collection at the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library.[8]
As well as his important role in the fostering of diplomatic relations between the US and China, he played a crucial role in the development of western surgical techniques in the country, as well as making a major contribution to medical art. His dedication to the people of China, and innovative approach to using medicine as a tool for the gospel, played a crucial role in developing contemporary modern mission, as well as helping to lay the foundations for the gospel work that has gone in China in recent years.
Further Reading
- www.med.yale.edu
/library /historical /parker.html - the Peter Parker collection online - Gulick E. Peter Parker and the Opening of China. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1973
References
- http:
/ /en.wikipedia.org /wiki /Peter_Parker_(physician) - Rachman S. Curiosity and Cure: Peter Parker's patients, Lam Qua's portraits. www.common-place.org 2004; 4(2)
- VanReken D. Mission and Ministry: Christian Medical Practice in Today's Changing Culture. http:
/ /bgc.gospelcom.net /emis /vrekenmono /vreken1.htm - Rachman S. Op cit
- VanReken D. Op cit
- Chang J. A reconstructive surgeon's taste in art: Dr Peter Parker and the Lam Qua oil paintings. Ann Plast Surg 1993;30(5):468-74]
- EMMS was founded in 1841 and is now a part of EMMS International (www.emms.org)
- www.med.yale.edu
/library /subjects /parker /
https://www.cmf.org.uk/resources/publications/content/?context=article&id=1801
http://www.internationalbulletin.org/issues/2013-03/2013-03-152-anderson.html
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1907年彭福從汝南教會學校畢業後，得施牧師之助，得以進入漢口博習書院(Griffith John College)深造。該書院為倫敦宣道會所辦，規模宏大，師資力量雄厚。但不久，因思鄉心切，年輕氣盛的彭福，不服施牧師對他的勸誡，竟負氣離校出走。寬厚仁愛的施牧師將其尋回，複送他到湖北老河口聖經學校就讀。二年後（1909年）從該校順利畢業。之後，他回到家鄉汝南教會擔任傳道，與施道格牧師一起工作。除了牧養和培訓等事工外，他還經常到四周鄉村去開荒佈道，建立教會。此外，他還與施牧師一道，創辦了汝南第一所西醫院，醫病救人，深受百姓歡迎。繁忙的工作使他在各方麵日趨成熟，經驗也更為豐富。他在汝南教會事奉達四年之久（1909-1913）。
